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Comparative Research
Correlational Research
Concerned with examining the strength of
associations (or relations) among two or
more variables.
Strength is expressed as a correlation
coefficient between -1.0 and +1.0.
The relationship can be positive or negative.
Correlations with absolute values close to 1.0
imply strong relationships; close to 0.0
imply weak (or no) relationships.
Analysis
Correlation coefficients (rxy) describe both the
size and direction of the relationship between
two variables, x and y.
Positive correlations close to +1.0 indicate that two
variables are strongly positively related (scores on
one variable can be used to predict scores on the
other).
Negative correlations close to -1.0 indicate that the
two variables are strongly negatively correlated.
Again scores on one can be used to predict scores
on the other.
Analysis
Assuming all or most of the coordinates (points)
fall within the ellipse (of a scatter graph), the
figure below represents a weak (near zero)
correlation.
Analysis
This figure represents a weak positive
correlation:
Analysis
Here we have a strong positive correlation:
Analysis
This would be a representation of a weak
negative correlation.
Analysis
Finally, a graphic representation of a strong
negative correlation.
A Table of Correlations
Correlations among several variables are usually
given in a correlation table.
Correlations Among Four Variables
Var 1
Var 2
Var 3
Var 4
Var 1
1.00
.32
.78
.66
Var 2
.32
1.00
.89
.21
Var 3
.78
.89
1.00
.11
Var 4
.66
.21
.11
1.00
A Table of Correlations
Only one half of a correlation table need be
displayed. The upper triangular half or
Correlations Among Four Variables
Var 1
Var 2
Var 3
Var 4
Var 1
Var 2
Var 3
Var 4
1.00
.32
.78
.66
1.00
.89
.21
1.00
.11
1.00
A Table of Correlations
The lower triangular half.
Var 2
Var 3
Var 1
1.00
Var 2
.32
1.00
Var 3
.78
.89
1.00
Var 4
.66
.21
.11
Var 4
1.00
A Table of Correlations
Often the diagonal is replaced by dashes.
Var 2
Var 3
Var 1
---
Var 2
.32
---
Var 3
.78
.89
---
Var 4
.66
.21
.11
Var 4
---
Causal-Comparative Research
Also called ex post facto research.
An attempt is made to find the cause or
explanation for existing differences
between (or among) groups.
Causal-Comparative research vs
Experimental research
In experimental research (or quasiexperimental research) the researcher
controls the administration of the
independent variable.
In causal-comparative research the groups
being formed have already been
differentiated according to the independent
variable (e.g., either they have been exposed
to pre-school or not).
There is NO
intervention,
manipulation, or
random assignment
Major difficulty:
Establishing the cause.
Three conditions for establishing causeeffect relationships:
1.
Spurious Causation
Here are two examples of
spurious causation.
In the top example, the
correlation between A and
C requires the mediator, B.
In the bottom example the
correlation between B and
C exists because both
variables are caused by A.
Reaching Conclusions
At best, causal-comparative research produces
evidence that supports a theoretical
conjecture.
The strength of evidence relies heavily on two
things:
1. The extent to which rival causes can be
ruled out.
2. The extent to which the results can be
predicted (according to theory) beforehand.
Conducting a
Causal-Comparative Study
Identify two or more populations (or groups)
that differ on some independent variable (IV)
of interest (e.g., novice teachers and veteran
teachers).
Formulate some theory about how the groups
should perform differently on some
dependent variable (DV) of interest (e.g.,
classroom management).
Select representative samples from the
populations and compare them on the
dependent variable.
Example Causal-Comparative
Study: What causes lung cancer?
Finding: People with lung cancer smoke
more than people without lung cancer.
There are no other differences in
lifestyle characteristics between the
groups.
Conclusion: Smoking is a possible cause of
lung cancer.
Caution: Is there a third factor that might
explain lung cancer AND smoking?
Strengthening Causal
Comparative Designs
Strong inference (theory plays a major role).
Time sequence (presumed cause precedes
presumed effect).
Incorporate other, possible, causes in the
design (measure common antecedents) .
Use designs that control for possibl extraneous
causes:
matched group design
Extreme groups design
Statistical control (Analysis of Covariance)
END