Six Sigma

Green Belt

Introduction to Control Charts

-6

-4

-2

Sigma Quality Management

1

Objectives

Six Sigma
Green Belt

Be able to identify the elements of a control chart

Be able to select the best control chart for a given indicator
Understand the theory of how a control chart works (and why)
Be able to identify and apply a rational subgrouping strategy for a
control chart

Six Sigma
Green Belt

Walter Shewhart

Our Hero!

Six Sigma
Green Belt

Typical Control Chart

X-BAR, S CONTROL CHART
UCL

Average

CL
LCL
1

11

13

15

17

19

Subgroup
UCL

Std. Dev.

CL
1

11

13

15

17

19

Choosing the Best Control Chart

Six Sigma
Green Belt

Type of Data Measurement vs. Count

Sample (or Subgroup) Size
Count Data Issues Defectives vs. Defects

Six Sigma
Green Belt

Control Chart Selection

CONTROL CHART SELECTION GUIDE
What Data is
to be Charted?

What type of data

is to be charted?
(measurement or
count)

Is a standard applied
to the entire item, or
to the item's elements?

Are the count data

assumptions met?

Questions for Count Data

Measurement

DATA

np and p chart
assumptions
met
Defectives

np and p chart
assumptions
not met

Count
c and u chart
assumptions
met
Defects

c and u chart
assumptions
not met

How is the
data to be
collected?

Control Chart

Subgroup size
> 10

X-bar, S

Subgroup size
2 - 10

X-bar, R

Subgroup size
=1

X, mR

Constant
Subgroup size

np

Varying
Subgroup size

p
X, mR

Constant
area of
opportunity

Varying
area of
opportunity

u
X, mR

Six Sigma
Green Belt

Subgroup Strategies
Rational Subgroup Defined

Impact of Subgrouping on Control Chart Sensitivity

Mean

Total Process Variation

Standard Deviations

Within-Group Variation
-6

-5

-4

-3

-2

-1

Time

Between-Group Variation

Simple Explanation of Control Charts

Six Sigma
Green Belt

Problem of Variation Chance vs. Assignable Causes

Criterion I General
Given a set of n data to determine whether or not they arise from a constant cause system,
do the following:
1. Divide the n data into m rational subgroups (of constant or variable size).
2. Pick the statistics you will use to judge the data. The mean, standard deviation and
proportion defective have been shown to be the most useful statistics for this purpose.
3. For each statistic, calculate (using the data) estimates of the average and standard
deviation of the statistic, where these estimates satisfy as nearly as possible the following
conditions:
a) If the quality characteristic from which the sample is drawn is controlled with average
X-Bar and standard deviation , the estimates used should approach these values
as the number of data n becomes very large (i.e. in the statistical limit),
b) If the quality characteristic is not controlled, the estimates actually used should be
those that will be most likely to indicate the presence of trouble (i.e. assignable
causes).
4. For each statistic, construct control charts with limits based on the statistics estimated
average plus/minus three times the statistics estimated standard deviation.
5. If a point falls outside the limits of the control chart, take this as evidence of the presence
of assignable causes, or lack of control.
8

Criteria Comments

Six Sigma
Green Belt

Statistics vs. Parameters

. . One Unique Distribution . . .
Finite Nature of Production Process
Sequence Order of the Data
Rational Subgroups
Choice of Three Sigma
Detecting Assignable Causes
Economy not Probability!

Exercises

Six Sigma
Green Belt

For your process, discuss possible subgrouping strategies - present

why these could/would be rational.
(Optional) If you are already familiar with control charts, compare the
basis for control charts presented here with your previous training.

10

Six Sigma
Green Belt

Measurement Control Charts

-6

-4

-2

11

Objectives

Six Sigma
Green Belt

Be able to construct and interpret (by hand and via Minitab):

X-bar, R control charts
X, mR control charts

12

Six Sigma
Green Belt

X-Bar, R Control Chart

UCL - Xbar
Average

CL - Xbar
LCL - Xbar
UCL - R

Range

CL - R
1

11

13

15

17

19

Subgroup

13

Six Sigma
Green Belt

X-Bar, R Control Chart

Changing Center
Before

After

Quality
Characteristic

Changing Variability

After

Before
Quality
Characteristic

Quality
Characteristic

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Six Sigma
Green Belt

Skewed Data
Mean

Quality
Characteristic

Histogram of Averages,
Samples of Size 15 Each

Quality
Characteristic
15

Six Sigma
Green Belt

X-Bar. R Construction
Collect the Data Subgroups & Size

R j X j max X j min
where:
X j max - the largest value of the " jth" subgroup

R Chart
Calculating Ranges

X j min - the smallest value of the " jth" subgroup

R j - " jth" subgroup Range

Calculating Average Range

Calculating Control Limits

1 k
R Rj
k j 1
where:
R j - " jth" Subgroup Range
k - number of Subgroups
R - Average Range

UCLR R D4
LCL R R D3
where:
D4 , D3 - Coefficients
UCLR - Upper Control Limit for Range Chart
LCL R - Lower Control Limit for Range Chart
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Six Sigma
Green Belt

X-Bar, R Construction
X-Bar Chart
Calculating Subgroup Averages

xj

Drawing the Chart

nj

i 1 ij

where:
n j " jth" subgroupsize
xij "ith" elementofthe" jth" subgroup

Calculating Grand Average

Calculating Control Limits

1
nj

x j " jth"subgroupaverage

1 k
x
k j 1 j
where:
x

x GrandAverageofSubgroups
UCL X Bar X ( R A2 )
LCL X Bar X ( R A2 )
where:
A2 - Coefficient
UCL X Bar - Upper Control Limit for X - Bar
LCL X Bar - Lower Control Limit for X - Bar
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Six Sigma
Green Belt

Control Chart Constants

Sample
Size (1)
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10

A2

D 3 (2)

D4

d2

1.880
1.023
0.729
0.577
0.483
0.419
0.373
0.337
0.308

0.076
0.136
0.184
0.223

3.268
2.574
2.282
2.114
2.004
1.924
1.864
1.816
1.777

1.128
1.693
2.059
2.326
2.534
2.704
2.847
2.970
3.078

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Six Sigma
Green Belt

X-Bar, R Control Chart

UCL - Xbar
Average

CL - Xbar
LCL - Xbar
UCL - R

Range

CL - R
1

11

13

15

17

19

Subgroup

19

Six Sigma
Green Belt

Assignable Cause - Interpretation

Rule 1:

Rule 2:
1

11

13

15

17

19

CL

11

13

15

17

Rule 3:

19

CL

11

13

15

17

19

20

Six Sigma
Green Belt

Assignable Cause - Interpretation

Rule 4:

Rule 5:
Zone

11

13

15

17

19

3
2
1
1
2
3
1

11

13

15

17

Rule 6:

19

Zone
3
2
1
1
2
3

11

13

15

17

19

21

Six Sigma
Green Belt

Assignable Cause - Interpretation

Zone
3
2
1
1
2
3

Rule 7:

Rule 8:

11

13

15

17

19

Zone
3
2
1
1
2
3
1

11

13

15

17

Rule 9:

19

UCL

CL
LCL
1

11

13

15

17

19

22

Six Sigma
Green Belt

X, mR Construction
Collect the Data Subgroups & Size
R Chart
Calculating Ranges

R2 x 2 x1
R3 x 3 x 2
R4 x 4 x 3
etc.
where:
x 2 x1 - Absolute Value of x 2 x1
Ri - "ith" Subgroup Range

Calculating Average Range

Calculating Control Limits

1 k
R
Ri
k 1 i 2
where:
R - Average Range

UCL 3.268 R

k - Number of Subgroups

(3.268 is the " D4 " coefficient for the X,mR Chart)

Drawing the Chart

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Six Sigma
Green Belt

X, mR Construction
X Chart
Calculating Average

1 k
X Xi
k i 1
where:
X - Average of X i 's
k - Number of Subgroups

Calculating Control Limits

UCLx X 2.66 R

Drawing the Chart

LCL x X 2.66 R
where:
UCL X - Upper Control Limit for X
LCL X - Lower Control Limit for X

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Six Sigma
Green Belt

X, mR Control Chart

UCL - X
Individuals

CL - X
LCL - X
UCL - R

Range
CL - R
1

11

13

15

17

19

Subgroup

25

Six Sigma
Green Belt

Attribute Control Charts

-6

-4

-2

26

Objectives

Six Sigma
Green Belt

Be able to construct and interpret (by hand and Minitab):

P & np control charts
C & u control charts

27

Attribute Control Charts

Six Sigma
Green Belt

Defective Defined
Defects Defined
Binomial Assumptions np & p Control Charts
Poisson Assumptions c & u Control Charts (later)

28

Six Sigma
Green Belt

Assignable Causes Attribute Charts

Rule 1:

Rule 3:

CL

11

13

15

17

19

Rule 2:

11

13

15

17

19

11

13

15

17

19

Rule 4:

CL

11

13

15

17

19

29

Six Sigma
Green Belt

nP Control Chart

Collecting the Data

n p npi k
i 1

Counting the Number of Defectives

where :
npi - Number of Defective Items, " ith" subgroup
k - Number of Subgroups

Calculating Average No. of

Defectives

Calculating UCL, LCL

n p - Average Number of Defectives per subgroup

1 k
n ni
k i 1
where :
ni - " ith" Subgroup Size
k - Number of Subgroups

Drawing the Chart

UCLnp np 3 np (1 np n )
LCLnp np 3 np (1 np n )
where:
UCLnp - Upper Control Limit
LCLnp - Lower Control Limit
n - Constant (or Average) Subgroup Size

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Six Sigma
Green Belt

nP Control Chart

# Defective
UCL

CL

LCL
1

11

13

15

17

19

31

Six Sigma
Green Belt

p Control Chart

Collecting the Data

Fraction Defective (or Percent Defective) :

np
np
pi i
pi i 100%
ni
ni

Calculating the Fraction Defectives

where :
npi - Number defective -" ith" subgroup
ni - Subgroup size - " ith" subgroup
pi - Fraction defective - " ith" subgroup

Calculating Average Fraction

Defectives

p npi
i 1

n
i 1

where :
p - Average fraction defective
or, percent defective = p 100%

Calculating UCL, LCL

UCL p p 3 p (1 p ) / ni and LCL p p 3 p (1 p ) / ni

or, for percent defective :
UCL p p 3 p (100 p ) / ni and LCL p p 3 p (100 p ) / ni

Drawing the Chart

where :
UCL p , LCL p - Upper & Lower Control Limits
ni - " ith" subgroup size

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Six Sigma
Green Belt

p Control Chart

Assignable Cause

% Defective

CL

11

13

15

17

19

Subgroup

33

c & u Control Charts

Six Sigma
Green Belt

Poisson Assumptions for c & u Charts

34

Six Sigma
Green Belt

c Control Chart

Collecting the Data

Counting the Number of Defects

Calculating Average No. of Defects

Calculating UCL, LCL

Drawing the Chart

1 k
c ci
k i 1
where:
ci - Number of defects, "ith" subgroup
k - Number of subgroups
c - Average number of defects

UCLc c 3 c
LCLc c 3 c
where:
UCLc - Upper Control Limit
LCLc - Lower Control Limit
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Six Sigma
Green Belt

c Control Chart

# Defects
UCL

CL

LCL
1

11

13

15

17

19

36

Six Sigma
Green Belt

u Control Chart

ui

Collecting the Data

ci
ni

where :

Counting the Number of Defects &

Defect Rate/Subgroup

ci - Number of defects, " ith" subgroup

ni - Area of opportunity, " ith"subgroup
ui - Defect rate, " ith" subgroup
k

Calculating Average Rate of Defects

u ci
i 1

n
i 1

where :
u - Average number of defects
k - Number of subgroups

Calculating UCL, LCL

UCLu u 3 u / ni
LCLu u 3 u / ni

Drawing the Chart

where :
UCLu - Upper Control Limit
LCLu - Lower Control Limit

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Six Sigma
Green Belt

u Control Chart

Assignable Cause

Defect Rate

CL

11

13

15

17

19

Subgroup

38