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Language Learning
Rod Ellis
University of Auckland
Controversies
SLA theories present different views about
such issues as:
The value of focus on forms instruction (as
opposed to focus on form)
The value of teaching explicit knowledge about
the L2
What type of corrective feedback works best
for acquisition
Thus the need for provisional specifications
(Stenhouse)
2.
3.
4.
5.
11.
Principle 1
Instruction needs to ensure that learners
develop a rich repertoire of formulaic
expressions and a rule-based
competence.
Formulaic Expressions
A language user has available to him or her a
large number of semi-preconstructed phrases
that constitute single choices, even though
they might appear to be analyzable into
segments. To some extent this may reflect the
recurrence of similar situations in human
affairs; it may illustrate a natural tendency to
economy of effort; or it may be motivated in
part by the exigencies of real-time
conversation.
(Sinclair, 1991)
Formulaic Expressions
Rule-Based Competence
Traditionally
Principle 2:
Instruction needs to ensure that
learners focus predominantly on
meaning
2.
3.
Principle 3:
Instruction needs to ensure that
learners also focus on form.
2.
3.
Principle 4:
Instruction needs to be
predominantly directed at
developing implicit knowledge of
the L2 while not neglecting
explicit knowledge.
Implicit Knowledge
Procedural
Accessed
by means of automatic
processes
Unconscious
Not verbalizable
Explicit Knowledge
Declarative
Principle 5:
Instruction needs to taker into
account the learners built-insyllabus.
Principle 6:
Successful instructed language
learning requires extensive L2
input.
Comprehensible Input
Krashen input must be comprehensible to
work for acquisition:
Simplified input
Contextualized input
Amount and quality of input accounts for rate
of acquisition.
But comprehensible input may not be sufficient
to ensure native-like competence.
Principle 7:
Successful instructed language
learning also requires
opportunities for output.
Principle 8:
The opportunity to interact in
the L2 is central to developing
L2 proficiency.
4.
Principle 9:
Instruction needs to take account
of individual differences in
learners.
Language Aptitude
Learners have different types of language
aptitude (e.g. analytical vs. memory-based).
Teachers can cater to variation in their
students aptitude by means of:
Learner-instruction matching
Using a variety of learning activities
Providing learner training to encourage flexible
learning approach (cf. good language learner
studies)
Motivation
Teachers also need to accept that it is their
responsibility to ensure that their students are
motivated and stay motivated and not bewail
the fact that students do not bring any
motivation to learn the L2 to the classroom.
While it is probably true that teachers can do
little to influence students extrinsic motivation,
there is a lot they can do to enhance their
intrinsic motivation.
Dornyeis strategies for developing learner
motivation.
Principle 10:
Instruction needs to take account of the
fact that there is a subjective aspect to
learning a new language
Developing symbolic
competence
This requires instructional activities that encourage language play
and emotional identification with the language:
through the introduction of literature and creative writing into the
L2 curriculum.
ensuring that a lesson has both predictability and unpredictability
transgressing the conventions of language use by using it in
absurd ways
the teacher demonstrating how he/she has dealt with being
multilingual
recognizing the value of silence
above all encouraging personal expression in the language.
Principle 11:
In assessing learners L2
proficiency it is important to
examine free as well as controlled
production.
CONCLUSION
Principles have been based on a
computational model of L2 acquisition (a
psycholinguistic perspective).
Need also for a social perspective (i.e.
for principles that recognize the role of
social context in L2 learning)