Managing Change

Leadership

There is nothing more difficult to take in hand,

more perilous to conduct, or more uncertain in
its success, than to take the lead in the
introduction of a new order of things.
Machiavelli

Chris Jarvis 1
 Managing Change

Management" versus Leadership

'Leadership'
 a road, a way, the path of a ship at sea - a sense of direction.
'Management' (Latin manus) - a hand, handling a sword, a ship, a horse.
 19thC corporatism and industrialisation - managerial agents

What do managers and leaders do? (Zaleznik 1977)

Managers focus attention & energy on

 how things get done
 their role in events that occur or in a decision-making process.
Leaders more concerned with
 ideas
 relating to others in more intuitive, empathetic ways
 what events and decisions mean to people

Chris Jarvis 2
 Managing Change

Classical management

Managers
 plan, organise, direct, control resources to achieve objectives.
 follow formal policies, rules &procedural regulations of their
employing organisation (administration > management?)
 handle and physically direct resources:
 money, materials, machinery, equipment, space, facilities,
 information and technology
 use of time
 people

Telling people what to do and how to do it more than vision and

giving a sense of direction?

Chris Jarvis 3
 Managing Change

Leadership 'messages'

Managers have 'subordinates' and communicate

 enable others to understand information, instructions or ideas
 seek order and control
Leaders have followers. They
 envision, influence, inspire.
 tolerate, promote creativity and imagination
 Bring order from chaos
 influence people towards objectives and desire to achieve
 gain voluntary commitment over compliance
 win hearts and minds

Chris Jarvis 4
 Managing Change

Bennis (1989)

Managers Leaders
Administer and copy Innovation and originality
Maintain Develop
Focus on systems & structure Focus on people
Rely on control Inspire trust
Short-range view - bottom line Long-range view - the horizon
Ask how and when Ask what and why
Accept the status quo Challenge the status quo
Classic good soldier Own person
Do things right Do the right things
'the liberation of talent rather than restraint by rule’ Leaders aim at 'winning
hearts and minds'. Mere managers aim at optimising the use of 'resources'.
(Peters & Austin, 1985).
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 Managing Change

Leadership & organisational effectiveness

 Common-sense + research link between manager- leadership

behaviour & subordinate performance.
 belief that business success has much to do with 'leadership'.
 management development programmes emphasise manager and
leadership style.
 Can leadership and problem-solving skills really be developed from
 simulated experienced in a field (outward bound approach)?
 assessment centre activity (workshop-like selection & development)?
 coaching and mentoring
 going on a leadership course?
 Reading a book, watching the TV?
 Playing rugby or football?

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 Managing Change

Practitioners, academia and recipes

 a mix of traditional and behavioural science approaches

 few analytical studies of leadership offer much to the
practical manager (Adair)
 academic doubts
 textbooks tend to
 Report 'theories'
 Some query the validity of particular approaches
 Imply prescriptions
 An industry selling
 prescriptive 'leadership development' and interpersonal skills
packages: motivating, listening, participative problem solving,
assertiveness and transforming skills

Chris Jarvis 7
 Managing Change

Leadership behaviour & effect on performance.

 Change involving 'people' is associated with leadership

 What competencies can be meaningfully described as 'leadership'?
 Managers & politicians generalise - 'we know it when we see it'.
 Correlate the skills and success of particular personalities.
Mayo and Hawthorne experiments (Roethlisberger & Dickson, 1939)
 'permissive' leadership behaviour leads to greater output

Kurt Lewin (1939)

 Autocratic, Laissez faire, Democratic leader styles & the
behaviour/performance of youth groups
 language & 'model' linking styles --> subordinate performance

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 Managing Change

Unitary (vs. pluralistic) frame of reference

 Unitary
 One set of values, beliefs, commitments
 Shared understanding & commitment to objectives
 One source of leadership
 Team members - All pulling in the same direction
 Potential for harmony is assumed if leader
communicates well
 Disagreements  the result of misunderstanding
 Dissidents – "rabble" hypothesis

Alan Fox – Research Paper to

Donovan Commission 1968

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 Managing Change

Change the people in post

 Selection and job change can profoundly effect organisational

effectiveness. Peters and Waterman (1982)
 ' Hewlett-Packard Way' & 'MbWA’ (Management by walk about)

 Pascale & Athos (1982) compare 'styles' and effect

 compared the styles and management practices of
 founder of Matsushita (National Panasonic)
 American CEOs
 'good' and 'bad' leadership styles
 Konosuke Matsushita & E. Carlson - United Airlines ('good')
 Harold Geneen at ITT (short-term effective, long-term bad).
 Margaret Thatcher vs. Tony Blair?

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 Managing Change

How do different 'styles' affect an organisation?

 wide ranging question

 open to question
 difficult to research - what are the variables?
 difficult to
 separate fact from fiction
 attribute cause and effect in different contexts and
organisational settings over time
 ambiguity of measures of organisational performance
 gap between perception of practitioners and behavioural
scientists

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 Managing Change

Typology of leadership theory

 Sometimes misleading to
contingency

The Person
group as 'schools'. trait theory
Nuances in original works theory
variable of situation & L-F
 Yet three variables to
leadership situations :
leader relationship

Focus
 leader group
Behaviour
 followers style theory
centred
dynamics +
variable of
 context/situation in VDL
which L/F find leader
themselves the followers

universal specific to situation

Breadth of application

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 Managing Change

Leadership traits approach

 everyday wisdom on common traits.

 can anyone agree?
 do some 'qualities' indicate potential & differentiate
the 'effective from the ineffective'
 Wide range of trait descriptors & variety of 'leaders'
(heroes and villains) - difficult to agree on one list

Chris Jarvis 13
 Managing Change

Cartwright and Zander (1968)

Effective leaders are often Nature over

Nature over nurture
nurture
 more intelligent, dependable,
responsible, active and
Leadership is
Leadership
cannot explain
is learned,
learned, although
explain entirely
although II
entirely how
how ...
... The
The
cannot
participative socially ability to
ability to lead
lead and
and inspire
inspire others
others isis ....
 with higher socioecon. status more instinctual
more instinctual than
… acquired
… acquired somehow
than premeditated
premeditated and
somehow through
through thethe
and

 act more often in different

ways, or the same way to
experiences of
experiences of one's
one's everyday
everyday life
life ….
….
the nature
the nature &
& quality
quality of
of that
that leadership
leadership
different degrees in some
activities?
comes out
comes out of
of …
… innate
innate character
character & &
personality…
personality…
 give out & ask for more
information
Harold Geneen
Harold Geneen ITT
ITT

 make more frequent

interpretations of events
psychometric tests
psychometric tests for
for
assessment and
assessment and selection.
selection.

Chris Jarvis 14
 Managing Change

Exercise

 Think of three managers you have known. List the qualities

of those you rate as being more effective managers

 Do a separate list for three less effective ones.

 What factors, or qualities, recur on each list?
 Select four leaders from national or organisational life and
list their qualities. Which ones keep recurring?

 What factors match those for your effective managers?

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 Managing Change

Limitations of 'traits' approach

 when leaders behave towards followers in different

ways, how much is cause, how much is effect?
 non-leaders often possess the same traits as leaders.
 Impossible to compile a list of universal traits.
 Bird 1940 identified 79 different traits from 'the literature'.
Only 5% common to => 4 studies
Conclusion?
 Consider the situation that leadership occurs in.

Chris Jarvis 16
 Managing Change

The group dynamics (group process) approach

 leadership as a function of organisation not the individual.

 small task groups not whole organisation
 three common functional behaviours:
 accomplish the task
 social & emotional needs of group
 social & emotional needs of individual members.
 failure in one affects the other two (performance & satisfaction).
 Leader contributions?
 Structuring - integrating
 Calming, supporting
 Controlling
 But one 'leader' may not necessarily perform all
 roles from 'trouble-shooters' to 'counsellors' - Belbin roles
 'Cometh the hour, cometh the man'.
Chris Jarvis 17
 Managing Change

Adair: Action-centred leadership

functional emphasis
based on task situation
and socio-emotional
needs
Task Aware of group
functions processes, people in
group, nuances of
behaviour, interpersonal
skills

Group Individual
maintenance needs

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 Managing Change

Vertical Dyad Linkage (VDL) Model (Danserau 1975)

 Leader may use different style for member (idiosyncrasies)

 Social exchange - leader-member relationships (dyads)
 Group = a set of vertical linkages
 Two sub-groups of relationships
 In-group members
 For the leader - reliable, effort, initiative, open, trust and
confidence, autonomy
 Out-group members
 Calculative, do contract only, distant, tension dyad
 Leadership - a negotiated VDL role

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 Managing Change

Anthony Jay (1975) - Propositions

 Cohesive groups or teams working as a social unit (a 'ten

group') achieve more than individuals in isolation. Based on
 Anecdotal, experiential evidence
 analogy with primitive tribes & animal behaviour Morris (1967,
1969), Ardrey (1961, 1967, 1970).
 Share common patterns with baboons, chickens, lions?
 Leadership is not a personal quality.
 Some have innate tendency and drive for high-status
dominance but this is one factor only
 become leader only in relation to specific group & task
 group leader emerges because the group thinks that he/she
can best help the group

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 Managing Change

Critique of Group Dynamics approach

 Ifhappens
leadership behaviour is situationally and group related what
when the situation or group changes?
 Does the organisation function sub-optimally?
But
 we comprehend how leaders may relate to followers & situations
 ignores wider organisational demands on leader and group.

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 Managing Change

The leadership style approach

 Hawthorne experiments origin

 Leader 'style' affects morale and output.
 Relay Assembly room - increased output caused by
'permissive' management of researchers
 Bank Wiring room - links management style and employee
attitudes and behaviour
 Kurt Lewin et al 1939 - adult leaders in boys' hobby club
 Autocratic, laissez faire, democratic leaders and follower
behaviour
 Democratic style reflects dominant social values
 Impetus for further study - Michigan and Ohio State

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 Managing Change

Ohio State studies (two factor-theory)

Flieshman 1953
 two (independent) L-dimensions Stogdill (1948, 1956)
 initiating structure (task centred)
 consideration (interpersonal relationships)
 "measure" perceptions & style preferences in various settings
---> inventories & development prescriptions
 effectiveness reflects
 task completion
 member satisfaction
 High task supervisors - productive but high turnover, lower morale
 High consideration supervisors - high morale, low productivity
 Over-generalised conclusions
 ideal leader = high on initiation + consideration.
 participative styles preferred
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 Managing Change

Ohio State findings - balancing initiation & consideration

 crews & superiors rate aircraft commanders by:

 technical competence
 effectiveness in working with other crew members
 performance under stress
 conformity to standard operating procedures
 overall effectiveness as crew members
 Crews & senior officers differed in perception of commander styles
& effectiveness
 Superiors judge leader competence in terms of
 formal & traditional standards
 high initiating & low or indifferent consideration.
 Subordinates give less significance to initiating.
High
satisfaction under 'considerate' commanders (seen as more
competent).

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 Managing Change

Linking Pin (Likert)

 Effective leaders fulfil group needs & functions in a o

situation
 Frustration, low productivity, absentees & turnover
if formal-L can’t perform all these. o
Formal tasks. o
o o
 instrumental competencies & motives
 technical know-how, innovation, sense of
achievement, concern for quality & customer care
o
Affiliation o
 interaction, support & expressive needs
o o
 Weak formal-L. Informal alternative emerges
If L-behaviour best fits group situation, what if this
changes?
 Can formal leader adapt?
 will group, dept, nation (led by alternative) perform
optimally?

Chris Jarvis 25
 Managing Change

Critique of Ohio State Studies

 Did not use peer group evaluation by

commanders or non-evaluative measures of
performance.
 output measures can often be favourably affected
in the short term by authoritarian leadership.
 Usual problems of social research
 Hawthorne effect
 Abstracted empiricism
 likelihood that a change in performance is related to
more than one variable

Chris Jarvis 26
 Managing Change

Michigan Leadership Studies

Managerial Grid
 programmes
& org. culture
for changing style

High
1.9 9.9.
 'proprietary' approaches to the ideal

Concern for people

assessment & training one-best style
 Diagnosis and treatment
 Blake - Mouton Managerial
Grid (1968)
5.5.

 Extended
focus
with contingency

 Tannenbaum 1958
1.1 9.1.

Low
 Reddin (1970)
 Hersey &Blanchard (1977) Low High
Concern for production

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 Managing Change

Tannenbaum-Schmidt Continuum

Boss-centred Follower-centred

use of authority by
leader

decision making &

action freedom for
followers
Tells Sells Suggests Consults Joins Delegates Abdicates

Continuum based on situational factors:

value system, wants, confidence, willingness.
Chris Jarvis 28
 Managing Change

Exercise

Review your experiences of working under

different leadership styles. Advantages &
disadvantages of a shift to a more
'participative' style?
 What departments in your organisation
appear to operate with different 'leadership
cultures'? Account for the differences.

Chris Jarvis 29
 Managing Change

Critique of style theories

 Universality of the style approach?

 Ambiguous evidence for usefulness of ' style' theories
 Style changes often assoc. with changes in org.
structure + other mgt competencies .
 Fiedler (1967) questions whether participative,
considerate styles are better than trad. authoritarian
or directive.
 Ineffective L-training - weak transfer of behaviour
change from directive to participative.
 Organisational & work pressures - own & other
people's expectations.
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 Managing Change

Contingency approach - Fiedler (1967)

Defines
DefinesL-effectiveness
L-effectivenessasasbehaviour
behaviour
that
that--->
--->high
hightask
taskperformance
performancebyby
group.
group.Depends
Dependson on  Respected leaders have
personal power. No need to
use position power (authority)
 preferred
preferredstyle
styleof
ofleader
leader
 High structure? non-
 group
groupsituation
situationas
asmuch
muchasasleader
leader compliance? Easy
 contextual
contextualvariables
variables intervention. Unstructured,
hard measure? Cannot easily
1.
1.Quality
Qualityof
ofL-member
L-memberrelations
relations enforce. Less power
2.
2.Work
Workstructure
structure(high
(highto
tolow)
low)  extent of formal authority over
3. rewards and sanctions Power
3.Leader
Leaderposition
positionpower
power
is not just dependent leader-
follower relationships.

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 Managing Change

Fielder development prescription

Measure
Measurepreferred
preferredstyle
style  Re-structure the work - How?
 least
leastpreferred
preferredco-worker
co-workerLPC
LPC  position power - depending on L.
instrument assessment, give subordinates near-
instrument
equal 'rank' (experts) or assign several
 88scales
scalese.g.
e.g.cooperative-
cooperative- ranks below
uncooperative,
uncooperative,friendly-unfriendly,
friendly-unfriendly,
supportive-hostile
supportive-hostile
 Loosen or tighten communication
and decision-making
 High
HighLPC
LPC--relationships
relationshipsoriented
oriented  leader-member relations - leader can
be similar or dissimilar to members
 Low
LowLPC
LPC --task
taskoriented
oriented (social, educational or ethnic
--External background, values or attitudes)
Externalcircumstances
circumstancesaffect
affectLL
ability
abilityto
toinfluence
influence  A history of harmony or conflict?
Assign a leader whose style fits group
--Change
Changeleader
leader (personality?)
(personality?) to
to
fit
fitsituation
situation or orrestructure
restructureto
to Fiedler and Garcia 1987 pp 49-55
reflect
reflectstrengths?
strengths? See Chapter 13 Rollinson

Chris Jarvis 32
 Managing Change

Fiedler: leader-members, task structures, position power

Leader- Task structure Position More effective Favourableness

member power leadership style
Relations
1 Good Structured Strong Task centred Good

2 Good Structured Weak Task centred Good

3 Good Unstructured Weak Task centred Good

4 Good Unstructured Weak Relationship-oriented Moderate

5 Poor Structured Strong Relationship-oriented Moderate

6 Poor Structured Weak Relationship-oriented Moderate

7 Poor Unstructured Strong Relationship-oriented Weak

8 Poor Unstructured Weak Task centred Weak

Chris Jarvis 33
 Managing Change

Implications and critique of Fielder

If Fielder is right

 don’t try to change people arrange task & power to fit situation
 select leaders & identify preferred styles. Diagnose situation and change it for - best fit
leader-match concept
But
 can a manager really choose a style, change 'personality' and a virtuoso with
different styles?
 Leadership training targets this. Are they training pigs to fly?
 LPC scores may indicate attitudes or personality but not actual behaviour
 Task performance is sole criterion for evaluating effectiveness (neglects follower
satisfaction)
 L-processes are more sophisticated than this theory. Mixed evidence on validity -
other variables ignored
However
 a deeper study which breaks the 'one-best-style' view and addresses contextual
variables

Chris Jarvis 34
 Managing Change

Exam Questions

 Evaluate the significance of Fiedler's 'social engineering'

approach to the development of thinking on leadership and
manager development practice.
 Evaluate how the Fiedler 'contingency and social
engineering approach' to leadership could work in any
organisation known to you.

Chris Jarvis 35
 Managing Change

Reddin's 3-D model (a style-contingency approach)

High Manager
Developer
Effectiveness executive

High
Relationships Related Integrated Bureaucrat Benevolent
Low autocrat

Missionary Compromiser Separated Dedicated

Low

Low High
Deserter Autocrat Task

 Is Blake - Mouton (1968) 9.9 style ideal?

Chris Jarvis
 style is more/less effective in situation 36
 Managing Change

Situational leadership model (Hersey & Blanchard 1977, 1982)

 Afollower
contingency approach with
maturity as critical
situational variable for L-
effectiveness.  Theoretically weak
 two major dimensions
 no proper rationale for the
 task style
hypothesised relationships
 relationship style
 Four styles  Maturity - an over-simplified
 telling, selling, participating, factor - lacks empirical support
delegating. (Yukl, 1981; Graeff, 1983;
 follower maturity Blank et al, 1990).
 degree of achievement
motivation
 willingness to take on
responsibility
 education or experience
Chris Jarvis 37
 Managing Change

Path-goal theory (contingency approach)

Main idea
 Effective-L smooths subordinates' path goals using
appropriate style, contingent on situational variables
 differs from Fiedler
 various styles - directive, supportive, participative and
achievement-oriented - can be used by the same leader in
different situations to
 influence subordinates' perceptions of the situational factors
 motivate by focusing on payoffs
 coaching and direction
 clarifying goals and expectancies
 House & Mitchell 1974
 reducing frustrations/barriers.
 Based on expectancy
 the research is not conclusive theory of motivation

Chris Jarvis 38
 Managing Change

Problems with contingency theories

 what causes what in real life?

 As with style theories, it is difficult to understand why there
should be a favourable climate towards the leader in some
groups.
 It could be argued that 'permissive' leadership is the result,
rather than the cause, of group effectiveness.

Chris Jarvis 39
 Managing Change

Social learning theory and leadership

 a(macro
model for continuous interaction between the environment
variables + subordinates and the leader's behaviour,
perceptions and cognitions.
 leader & subordinates/followers have negotiable, interactive
relationship
 They learn how they can modify or influence each other's
behaviour by giving or holding back desired rewards
 Davis and Luthans, 1980
 Sims and Lorenzi, The New Leadership Paradigm, Sage, 1992

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 Managing Change

Why the persistent search ?

 exercising effective-L is becoming more and more difficult

 economic shifts Pacific Rim and China etc.
 political change South Africa, Soviet Union, Italy, Japan and
Europe
 less natural goodwill and traditional deference towards leaders
 Many skills and techniques of today's senior executives are
being superseded.
 Competition & changing markets, products, technologies
and expectations dictate adaptability and innovation in
strategic decision making, marketing, organisation - and
leadership

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 Managing Change

Are successful leaders redefining their role?

 projecting a particular ethos and culture

 powerful
heading.
vision of where their companies or their societies are

 E.g. Prime Minister Dr Mahathir Mohamed's vision of Malaysia in

the year 2020
 former Prime Minister Lee Kuan Yew's vision of Singapore as The
Switzerland of the East by 1999.
 What does this imply for leadership behaviour?
 Managers and senior executives who are successful leaders will
not only respond to change positively but also actively create
change.
 Leaders with a particular drive, a desire to bring order out of
chaos, or, if something is too cosy, to create chaos in order to
bring change.

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 Managing Change

Transformational leadership theory

 Context? late-20 C national &

th

 fresh thinking? global pol-econ. change

 transformational leader  Contributors: Downton

(1973), Burns (1978), Bass
creates conditions for
creates conditions for (1985), Bennis & Nanus (1985),
followers to want to achieve Tichy & Devanna (1986)
results and to fulfil
themselves.
 Bass surveyed 70 execs
"In your careers, who
 bridges small group studies transformed you in Burns'
terms (raised awareness, move
& leadership by ’movers and
up Maslow hierarchy …. to
shakers’ who transform transcend self-interest).
organisations
 Answer: usually an
organisational superior.

Chris Jarvis 43
 Managing Change

From Laissez faire to Transactional

 Laissez-faire not really leaders at all, avoid intervention, weak follow

up, passivity, potential for confusion
 Transactional leaders
 Management by exception
Passive: set standards/objectives, wait for, react to, reluctant
intervention. Status quo
Active: standards/objectives, monitor, correct, look for error,
enforce rules/procedures. Low initiative and risk-taking
constructive transactions, contingent rewards
 agree standards/objectives, feedback, rewards for achievement.
 outcome: performance that meets expectations.
 simplified in One-Minute Manager (Blanchard & Johnson 1982)
 Airport business library

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 Managing Change

Transactional leadership in perspective

 Mixed evidence - it may be desirable, even necessary. Contingent

rewards underpin PRP
 laissez-faire and transactional in directive, consultative, participative
& delegative styles

 directive + Mgt by Exception

'These are the rules and this is how you've broken them'.
 participative + Mgt by exception
'Let's work out together the rules to identify mistakes'

 Weaknesses

Carrot/stick rewards, emphasis on plans, targets, systems,
controls
 management > leadership
 fails to develop, motivate, bring to full potential (Bass)

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 Managing Change

The transformational leader (Bass’s four 'I's)

promotes
 follower desire for achievement & self-development.
 teams, esprit de corps, autonomy, synergy, belief,
value

Four 'I's.
 lndividualised consideration (IC)
 Intellectual stimulation (IS)
 Inspirational motivation (IM)
 ldealised influence (charisma) (II)
Chris Jarvis 46
 Managing Change

Individualised consideration and Intellectual stimulation

IC
 identifying individuals' needs & abilities, opportunities to
learn, delegating, coaching and giving developmental
feedback. Spend time with individuals e.g. mentoring.
IS
 question status quo, encourage imagination, creativity,
logical thinking and intuition.
 unorthodoxy in character, symbolise innovation.
 Compare UK motorcycles & Swiss watch market to Sony

Chris Jarvis 47
 Managing Change

Inspirational motivation & ldealised influence

Inspirational motivation
 clear vision, problems as
opportunities, language & symbols
giftLeadership .. the priceless
you earn from those who
 I had a dream …... work for you. I have to earn
the right to that gift, and
 Ask not what America can do continuously re-earn (it).
for you. Ask what you can do..
John Harvey-Jones (ICI)
 go the extra mile. Iacocca at
Chrysler.
ldealised influence
 Confident in communicating a
virtuous vision  Gandhi, Luther King,
 the buck stops here'. Purpose, Thatcher, Blair
persistence, trust, accomplishment
over failure. Respected for
 Hitler, Jim Jones

personal ability
Chris Jarvis 48
 Managing Change

Bass's model
effective

 Learn TL!! LFLF

LF
LF
LF
LF

 Avolio-Bass training 44 xx II
package
package CR
CR

MbEx-A
MbEx-A
passive active
MbEx-P
MbEx-P
Encouraging TL will
LF
LF
 project confidence, commitment
& competence
 attract quality staff to the mission
& challenge
ineffective
 develop people more fully to
respond better to competition &
change
Chris Jarvis 49
 Managing Change

Motorola's six-sigma programme.

6Σ
Transformational leadership application
 defect-free parts within six standard
deviations
 concepts, symbols and vision for
world-class quality
 IS, IM, IC in promoting awareness,
responsibility and self-monitoring.

Chris Jarvis 50
 Managing Change

Is transformational leadership cross-cultural?

 ‘exporting participative management or Theory Y from the USA

to authoritarian cultures is like 'preaching Jeffersonian
democracy to managers who believe in the divine right of
kings'.
Haire, Ghiselli and Porter 1966

 Leadership - a universal phenomenon?

 context and culture influences
 Bass presents evidence from studies in Italy, Sweden, Canada,
New Zealand, India, Japan and Singapore
 suggests that the model needs only fine-tuning across cultures

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 Managing Change

Motivated in spite of leader? Do we really need 'em?

 1970s dissatisfaction with leadership theory and research

in explaining effect on motivation &performance
'Substitutes' theory of leadership (Kerr & Jermier 1978)
 Are there substitutes for leadership making L-behaviour
unnecessary e.g.
 'Professional', competent people do not need 'leadership' to
perform well and to be motivated. Depends on
 the individuals, the work, the organisation and its
structure, feedback, intrinsic job satisfaction, group
cohesion, weak authority or remoteness of the leader
 Replace/counteract leader behaviour in determining
member performance and satisfaction.

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