6.

1 INTRODUCTION
Alvin Dodd, the president of American management
association stated that, the number one problem of
management today is communication. As a matter of
fact, effective communication is important in bringing
about coordination, understanding and unity in the
overall strife to attain organizational objectives and
goals. In the communication process there are certain
basic concepts and principles and steps that have to
be followed to assure the transmission of a message
from the sender to the receiver successfully. In order
to meet this challenge, every executive should spend
about 80 % of his time in communication, as stated by
M.U Qureshi.

6.2 THE DEFINITONS OF COMMUNICATION

There are several definitions of communication as advanced by
different authorities , such as:

1. According to Robert Albanese, communication is

information that flows and transfers meaning and
understanding from an information source, which is the
sender, to information receiver.
2. According to Keith Davis, Communication is the process
of passing information and understanding from one person to
another person.
3. According to McFarland, Communication is the process
of meaningful interaction among human beings. It is the
process by which meanings are received and understandings
are reached among human beings.

4. According to Newman and Summer, Communication is

the exchanging of facts, ideas, opinions or emotions by two or
more persons.
5. According to Robbins and Coutler, Communication
involves the transfer and understanding of meanings.
6. According to Qureshi , Communication is the interaction
between persons which includes the exchange of information,
ideas, emotions, and understanding between persons.
Finally, communication can be defined as the process of
exchanging information, ideas, feelings and understanding
between sender and receiver. It is the process of conveying
meanings between two persons. It is a systematic process of
conveying, listening and understanding something between
two or more persons through words, figures, symbols, pictures,
body language, colors, and sounds.

6.3 CHARACTERISTICS OF COMMUNICATION

The following are important characteristics of communication:
1. Communication is a process of interaction or an inter-active
process between persons.
2. Communication is a two-way process between the sender and the
receiver. It includes the exchange of ideas to promote understanding
and goodwill.
3. Communication is a social process.
4. Communication is a dynamic social process which is adapted in
accordance with the changing needs of the business environment.
5. Communication involves at least two persons, the sender of the
message and the receiver of the message.

6. Communication should be properly planned to reach the target

audience.
7. Communication should be performed by all the managers and
employees (superiors and subordinates) in all levels of the
organizational of the organizational hierarchy.
8. Communication aims to extract desired response or data from the
receiver.
9. The message of communication is expressed through words, data,
symbols, body language, pictures, figures and sounds.
10.Communication may be oral, written or gestural.
11.Communication may be directed downward, upward, horizontally
or on the same level.
12. The end result of communication is to attain harmony,
understanding and cooperation in the organization.

6.4 OBJECTIVES AND GOALS OF

COMMUNICATION
According to john G. clover, the objectives and goals of
communication are the following:
1. To keep employees well-informed
2. To provide employees with proper orders and instructions
in relation with their duties and responsibilities.
3.To gather information from employees who may help
management in decision making processes.
4.To make every employee interested in his/her job and enjoy
working in the company in general.

5. To express managements interest and satisfaction in its

personnel.
6. To produce fast turn-over of personnel.
7. To motivate the employees with the will to work and with the
benefits obtained from their employment with the company.
8. To instill every employee with personal pride and joy being a
part of the company.

6.5 THE IMPORTANCE OF

COMMUNICATION
According to Haimann, The success of all managerial
functions depends on successful communication. Other
experts state that, good communication is the
foundation for sound management. In fact, no small,
medium, large and transnational organizations can
survive without effective and efficient communication
system.

According to M.U Qureshi, communication is important

for the following reasons:
1. Effective communication facilities efficient functioning
of enterprise.
2. Effective communication ensures proper planning.
3. Effective communication facilitates sound decisionmaking.
4. Communication is at the very heart of the process of
organizing.
5. Communication ensures effective staffing.
6. Communication is essential for leading people.
7. Communication enhances motivation and morale.

8. Communication facilitates good coordination.

9. Effective control requires sound communication
system.
10. Effective communication promotes democratic
management of the organization.
11. Effective communication ensures sound human
and industrial relations.
12. Effective communication promotes goodwill,
understanding and good image of the organization.
13. Effective communication avoids illusion and
ignorance.
14. Effective communication facilitates
organizational change.

6.6 THE COMMUNICATION PROCESS

The communication process is the method
by which a sender reaches a receiver. The
process requires six (6) steps: (1) develop
an idea, (2) encode, (3) transmit, (4)
receive, (5) decode and (6) use.

Develop an idea - The 1st step is to develop an idea or thought

that the sender wishes to convey. Unless there is a worthwhile
message to transmit, all other steps will become useless.
Encode The idea is to put into suitable words, charts or other
symbols for transmission. The sender should determine at this
point the method of transmission so that the words and symbols
may be organized in a manner suitable for the type of
transmissions chosen.
Transmit transmission by the method chosen is then the next
step. The channels of communication should likewise be
determined together with the proper thing in sending the
message. The communication channel should be as much as
possible, free of barriers or interferences, in order that the
message will have a good chance of reaching the intended
receiver and holding the receivers attention.

Receive At this point the message is transferred to the receiver

who tunes it up to receive it. Without an effective reception, the
message fizzles out into nothingness.
Decode the message is then decoded so that it can be
understood. The senders intention is for the receiver to understand
in full the message conveyed. However, due to difference in
perception between the sender and the receiver, misunderstanding
may take place. It is in the receivers mind that understanding can
take place. Telling is not sufficient communication unless
understanding at the other end is brought about.
Use the final step in the process is for the receiver to use the
communication, either by ignoring it, performing the task called
for, storing the information or doing otherwise, as directed.
Communication reveals t other the nature of communicator, his
way of thinking and other values. It, therefore, plays an important
role in interpersonal and group relationships.

THE RULE OF FIVE (5)

There are two (2) additional steps desired by senders, which are,
however, not needed to complete a communication. These are
acceptance and feedback to the sender regarding the message.
Acknowledgement of the communication is usually desired by senders
so that cooperation and motivation will be enhanced. Senders
likewise desired feedbacks to know how well the message is
understood and used.
The entire set of five (5) receiver steps: (1) receive, (2) understand,
(3) accept, (4) use, and (5) feedback. If the communication
successfully undergoes these five (5) steps with a receiver, the
communication can be said to be successful.

6.7 FOUR (4) TYPES OF COMMUNICATION

NETWORKS

1. Chain network. Communication is a vertical line

from top to bottom and bottom to top of the
organizational hierarchy.
2. Circular network. Communication moves in a
circular way. Every individual can communicate with
the person on his immediate right or left but not with
any other person in the organization or group.

3. Wheel or star network. This refers to a network

which the members of an organization usually do not
communicate directly with each other. They usually
communicate with other members through one superior
or manager like the hub of the wheel. The manager acts
as the central point like the hub of the wheel. This
network is also known as autocratic network.
4. Free-flow or Decentralized or All channel
network. This type of communication network is one
which lines are not structured. Every member of the
organization can communicate freely and frankly with
all other members. Thus there is no restriction on the
flow of communication and therefore, it is more of the
nature of an informal network.

6.8 THE CATEGORIES OF COMMUNICATION

Communication may be classified on the following bases:
On the basis of organizational structure;
1. On the basis of direction; and,
2. On the basis of mode of expression.
Communication on the basis of Organizational structure
1. Formal communication; and,
2. Informal communication or grapevine.

The Formal Communication

Formal communication means the communication
which travels through the formally established
channels. It establishes the single path of
communication channels which links the various
positions. Thus, it is deliberately and consciously
established by the management, members of the
organization are expected to communicate to this formal
channels. Formal communication may be upward,
downward and horizontal or on the same level of
organizational hierarchy.

The Advantages of Formal

Communication
1. It ensures orderly flow of communication.
2. It helps in maintaining the lines of authority in the
organization.
3. It helps in maintaining direct contact with the
subordinates. Thus, it facilitates control by superiors.
4. It helps in the fixation of responsibility and accountability.
5. It helps in maintaining discipline.

The Disadvantages of Formal Communication

1. It is time-consuming.
2. It obstructs free and accurate circulation of information
in an organization.
3. It lacks personal contacts and leadership.
4. It creates a bottleneck in the flow of information because
all information is channeled through a single executive.
5. This is the possibility of distorting facts when the
message passes through various levels.
6. The filtering of facts is possible in upward
communication, since a person working in a subordinate
capacity is likely to report to his superior.

The informal communication (Grapevine)

Informal communication takes place on the basis
of informal relation between the members of a
group. It is on the basis of personal communication
in nature and not a formal communication. It does
not flow through the official lines of the chain of
command and channels of communication.
Informal communication is sometimes referred to
as grapevine. It transmit information about what
people are doing, it often lead to rumors in the
organization.

Keith Davis identified four (4) networks in transmitting

information through grapevine:
1. Single standard. One and one person
communication.
2. Gossip chain. Every member of the informal group
talks with everyone and it is usually about personal
matters.
4. Probability chain. Communication of information is
done randomly.
5. Chester chain. Grapevine communication generally
operates like a Chester chain.

The Advantage of informal communication

1. It is faster in speed than formal communication.
2. It is more flexible.
3. It is dynamic and reacts quickly according to change of time.
4. It is a powerful tool of communication.
5. It helps improve decision-making.
6. It satisfies the inner urge or need of people.
7. It is an effective means of communicating organizational rules, values,
morals, traditions and history.
8. It supplements formal communication.
9. It may serve as a trial-balloon of management of any critical issue.
10. It may provide feedback to managers on their actions and decisions.

The Disadvantages of informal

communication
1. It carries inadequate information.
2. It promotes gossips and spreads rumors.
3. It is hard to identify the source of information.
4. It may create misunderstanding and confusion.
Information may mislead personnel.

Communication on basis of direction

There are types of communication on the basis of their
direction, such as:
1. Downward communication;
2. Upward communication;
3. Horizontal communication; and,
4. Diagonal communication.

Downward communication is one that flows from top to

bottom or from superior to subordinates down the lines of
the organizational structure. According to Katz and
Khan the following are the objectives of the downward
communication:
1. To gikve specific task directive about jobs;
2. To give information about organizational procedures
and practices;
3. To provide information about rational of the job;
4. To tell the subordinates about their performance; and,
5. To give ideological type information to facilitate goals.

The Advantage of Downward Communication

1. It helps explaining company vision, mission, objectives
and goals, policies, rules, projects and tasks to the
subordinates.
2. It helps to coordinate and integrate levels of management
in the organizational structure.
3. It helps to managers to use their authority and power
effectively anf efficiently.
4. It helps management to introduce organizational change.
5. It eradicates misunderstanding and doubt between
management and workers.

The Disadvantage of downward

communication
1. Information might be filtered because it passes through
several levels of management in the organizational
hierarchy.
2. Inaccurate information might prevail because of the
senders carelessness, poor communicaition skills, decoding
and distortions.
3. Sometimes it is time-consuming because it passes
through several levels of management.
4. Some executive at various levels tend to filter information
for their personal interests.

Steps to improve Downward

Communication
1. The message must be specific, clear and vivid.
2. It should be time-bound.
3. It should be in line with the duties, responsibilities,
capabilities, authorities and accountabilities of the
receiver.
4. It should be in accordance with the organizational
vision, mission, objectives and goals.
5. It shoud be with the organizational policies, rules and
regulation.

Upward Communication is one that flows from

bottom to top management or from subordinates to
superiors along with the chain of command in the
organizational hierarchy. The communication may
be in the form of progress reports, problems,
suggestions, or reccomendations, opinions, ideas,
grievances, complaints, appeals and requests, and
explanations.

The advantages of Upward Communication

1. It provides feedback from the workplace or field.
2. It enables managers to know the progress of the project done by
the subordinates.
3. The subordinates can express their problems, drievances and
appeals to management.
4. The subordinates can be innovative and creative.
5. It increases receptiveness of communication.
6. It enables executives to evaluate the impact and effectively of
command.
7. It creates feelings of belongingness, harmony and cooperation
among the subordinates.

The Advantages of Horizontal

Communication
1. Better coordination and integration among officers or
departments.
2. Personnel on the same level shall be encouraged to share
or exchange vital information.
3. There shall be joint efforts in the solving of problems.
4. It develops favorable working environment.
5. Inter-department conflicts can be solved easily.
6. It helps avoid overlapping and duplication of activities.

The DisAdvantage of Horizontal

Communication
1. Sometimes it is hard to get the willingness of other
personnel to share information.
2. Differences of visions, experiences and approaches
may distort the information.
3. Usually, personnel may tend to suppress information
which si disadvantageous to the organization.

The Diagonal Communication

refers to the communication between people who are
neither in the same department nor on the same level of
organizational hierarchy. For example, the cost
accountant, who is interested in conducting a promotion
cost analysis, may request marketing representatives to
report directly to him. When marketing representatives
forward reports directly to the cost accountant, then, it is
said to be a diagonal communication. They need to
forward their reports first to the marketing executive
who shall, in turn, forward their reports to the cost
accountant.

The flow of communication based on the mode of

expression
1. Written communication.
2. Oral or verbal communication.
3. Gestural or non-verbal communication.
Written communication is expressed trhough written
words. It may be expressed through froups, charts,
diagrams or pictures, with or without words. It may be
in the form of letters, circulars, notes, memoranda,
reports, pamphlets, crochures, handbooks, manuals
and others.

The Advantage of Written Communication

1. All concerned to have the same information.
2. It is a permanent record of information.
3. It is an effective means of communicating lengthy
messages.
4. There is no alteration in the messages.
5. It is an effective means of exchanging information at
distant places.
6. It is complete, clear, precise and correct.
7. It allows time to think before communicating.
8. It avoids misunderstanding disputes and conflicts.
9. It is valid, legal evidence.
10. It is an effective means of transmitting messages to a
large number of persons at the same time.

The Disadvantage of Written

Communication
1. It is more expensive.
2. It is more time-consuming.
3. There is no secrecy.
4. Correction cannot be done easily once the
communication is already released.
5. There is no personal touch.
6. It can be subjected to several interpretations.
7. There is no immediate feedback.

The shades (Oral or Verbal) communication is

expressed through words-of-mouth or spoken words.
It may be in the form of face-to-face conversation or
through any electronic mode such as: telephone,
cellular phone, intercom and other means. Oral
communication may be also in the form of one-to-one
conversations such as: meetings, group discussion,
joint consultations, announcements, group meetings,
speeches, lectures, radio, and T.V. Broadcasts.
According to Haimann, the human voice can
impart the message with meaning and shading
which even long pages of written words simply
cannot convey.

The Advantage of Oral

Communication
1. It is more economical than written communication.
2. It is faster and reaches the target audience more easily.
3. It promotes personal touch and leads to better
understanding and goodwill.
4. In case of errors, immediate corrections can be made.
5. In case of doubts, immediate clarification can be
requested.
6. Feedback and reaction can be received immediately.
7. Inter-active participation among the participants can
be obtained.
8. It is more flexible than the written communication.

The Disadvantages of Oral

Communication
1. It is less reliable than written
communication.
2. It is sometimes distorted.
3. There are no records for future references.
4. There is no ample time to think before
conveying the message or information.
5. It presents regional language problems.
6. It is expensive in case the receiver of the
message or information is at a distant place.

The Gestural
(Non-Verbal) Communication is a mode of communication
through postures or Gestures of the different parts of the
body. Such as movement of the lips, wink of an eye, the
wave of hands, movement of heads, facial expressions, tone
of voice, and any other movement of body or body parts
which may be used to transmit the message.
Non-verbal mode is considered as one of the effective modes
of communication. The feelings, emotions and attitudes of
the person can be easily conveyed. It can also easily convey
the reactions and response of the listener of the message or
information.

6.9 THE COMMANDMENTS OF GOOD

COMMUNICATIONS BY THE AMERICAN
AMANGEMENT ASSOCIATION

1. Seek to clarify your ideas before

communicating.
2. Examine the purpose of each
communication.
3. Consider the total physical setting,
whenever you communicate.

4. Consult with others, where

appropriate, in planning the
communication.
5. Be mindful while you communicate of
the overtones as well as the basic
content of your message.

6. Take the opportunity, where it arises, to

convey something of help or value to the
receiver.
7. Follow-up your communication.
8. Communicate for tomorrow as well as today.
9. Be sure that your actions support your
communications.
10. Seek not only to be understood but
understand.

6.10 BARRIERS TO EFFECTIVE

COMMUNICATION
The barriers of effective communication according to M.U. Qureshi
are as follows:
1. Poorly expressed message. This is the most common barrier
of effective communication poor expression. Wrong voice of words
and phrases. Faulty construction of sentences, ambiguous
language and lack of coherence are the main causes of poor
expression of a message.
2. Complex organizational structure. Long chain of command,
large span of control, several layers of management, confusing
relations between line and staff officers and the long distance
between line and staff officers and the long distance between the
sender and the receiver of the message may create barriers of
communication.

3. Status barriers. Persons with high positions

sometimes do not want to talk freely with their
subordinates. The worse is that, many superiors do not
want to listen patiently to their subordinates. In the
same manner, subordinates usually hesitate to seek
clarifications and express their views and suggestions.
4. Filtering information Communication only convey
information which the receivers or listeners would
appreciate. This practice tends to distort
communication.
5. Semantic barriers. Different people may derive
different meanings from the same words or symbols.

6. Language barriers. There are times when the

languages of the sender and the receiver of the
message are different. Both cannot communicate
themselves effectively due to language barriers. In
addition, there are large numbers of specialized fields,
such as systems analysis, computers, operation
research, medicine, law and engineering among others,
in which technical jargon or terminologies are used to
communicate messages, which contribute to poor
communication.
7. Different backgrounds. Different individuals
often interpret the same communication differently
because of their different backgrounds. Thus when
people with different knowledge and experience try to
communicate the often have trouble in getting their
meaning across.

8. Emotional Attitude. When emotions are running

high, it is difficult to know the frame of mind of the
other person or group. There is a great tendency that
the communicator is biased.
9. Undisclosed Assumptions. Undisclosed
assumptions underlie practically all messages. Because
of this, the receiver of the message may have same
assumptions (regarding the message) which are
different from the assumptions of the communicator.
This may lead to incorrect action or lack on the part of
the receiver of the message.

10. Inadequate Attention or Half-Listening. Joseph

Dooher stated that Listening is the most neglected skills of
communication. Half listening is like racing your engine
with gears in neutral. You use gasoline but you get
nowhere. Inadequate attention of half-listening to the
message makes communication less effective and the
message is likely to be misunderstood.
11. Barriers Due to lack of mutual trust. When we
communicate, we are trying to establish commonness. Thus,
one will freely transfer information and understanding with
another only when there is mutual trust between the two.
When there is lack of mutual trust between the
communicator and the receiver, the message is not followed.

12. Resistance to Change. It is a general character

of human beings to stick to old customary pattern of
life. They may resist change to maintain status quo.
Thus, when new ideas are being communicated to
introduce a change, it is likely to be overlooked or
even opposed. This resistance to change creates an
important obstacle to effective communication.
13. Mechanical barriers. Barriers are created by
the mechanical system used in communicating
messages. This is due to inadequate transmission
and receiving equipment, defective instruments,
noise at transmission or receiving ends, wrong choice
of media, and other causes.

6.11 STRATGIES TO EFFECTIVE

COMMUNICATION
1. Clarity and completeness. It is necessary and
important to know the target audience for whom the
message is to be sent. The message to be conveyed must
be clear and can be easily understood. The information
should be complete and appropriate. The purpose of the
communication should be clearly defined and understood.
2. Proper language. The message should be expressed
in simple terms, brief and clear language. The words or
symbols selected for coveying the message must be
appropriate to the reference and understanding of the
receiver

3. Proper channel or medium. Selection of proper

channel or medium is very necessary. A proper
combination of written, oral and gesture modes as well
as formal and informal channels should be used to
ensure effective communication.
4. Sound organizational structure. To obtain
effective communication, the organizational structure
must be properly structured in accordance with the
needs of the organization.
5. Training and development of employees.
Employees should be trained and developed in line
with the vision, mission, objectives and goals of the
organization. They must be properly informed about
policies, rules and regulations of the organization.

6. Effective listening. In order to communicate

effectively, one should be a good listener. Superiors
should be develop the habit of patient listening and
avoid premature evaluation of communication from
their subordinates.
7. Consultation and participation. Proper
consultation and participation of subordinates in the
decision-making process shall lead to effective listening
and communication in the organization.
8. Motivation, mutual trust and confidence. Proper
planning is important to determine the best way to
motivate the receiver to act the desired action. A sense
of mutual trust and confidence should be cultivated to
have free flow of information.

9. Integrity factor. Management should be consistent in

maintaining high sense of integrity. Communication becomes
ineffective when the subordinates do not believe their
superiors, due to lack of credibility or integrity.
10. Use of formal communication. Formal channels of
communication should be supplemented by informal channels
of communication to have clearer picture and understanding of
what is taking place in the organization.
11. Effective feedback mechanism. Management should be
able to receive good feedback from different sectors that were
affected by the actions carried upon by management can be
immediately done.
12. Proper gestures and tone. Proper facial expression, tone,
gestures and mood and all other body movements greatly
promote effective communication.

6.12 EFFECTIVE LISTENING

Effective listening enables the receivers to take exactly
the idea that a sender wishes to convey. Good listening
has several advantages. It saves time because the
listeners learn more within a short period of time; it
makes the listener learn more about the person talking as
well as what he is saying; it is also a manifestation of
good manners and it encourages others to respond by
listening to what the receiver has to say. Listening is most
effective for understanding general ideas about shortterm operating problems but is not effective for receipt
and storage in receiving and storing factual details. Good
listeners use their idle time to think in terms of the
speakers objective, weigh evidences, search for clues to
meaning and review what has bees said.

Suggestions for effective listening:

1. Stop talking. You cannot listen if you are talking.
2. Put the talker at ease. Help a person feel free to talk.
This is often called permissive environment.
3. Show the talker that you want to listen. Look and act
interestedly. Do not read while someone is talking. Listen to
understand, do not oppose.
4. Remove distractions. Dont doodle, tap or shuffle
papers. Will it be quieter if you

5. Empathize with talkers. Try to see and hear the

other persons point of view.
6. Be patient. Allow ample time. Do not interrupt a
talker. Dont start for the door or walk away.
7. Hold your temper. An angry person often
misinterprets the meaning of words.
8. Go easy on argument and criticism. There put
people on the defensive, and thery may calm up or
become angry.

7.0

MOTIVATION

7.1 INTRODUCTION

A person brings to his job certain

psychological needs which in his
environment , are translated into
wants. Management must therefore
strive to provide its workers with a
working climate that would motivate
its workers to serve both the
company as well as their individual
needs.

HUMAN NEEDS

Motives are expressions of

personal needs and are internal
in nature. It is managements
task to identify and activate
mans motives the positive way
to achieve better performance.
Tensions are created by needs
which are turned by ones
culture into wants.

TYPES OF
NEEDS

BASIC PSYCHOLOGICAL
NEEDS OR PRIMARY NEEDS

Basic psychological needs are

those that are indispensable
for survival.

*Food

*Water

*Cloth

SOCIAL AND PSYCHOLOGICAL

NEEDS OR SECONDARY NEEDS
Secondary needs or the social
psychological needs differ among people
much more than the primary needs.
Secondary needs bring about a number
of motives in each individual. Motives of
many types and intensities have their
influence upon one another in the drive to
satisfy motivations.
Secondary motives of an individual are
difficult to identify being unapparent to
the person himself.

SECONDARY NEEDS
CHARACTERISTICS

They are strongly influenced by experienced.

They vary in type and in degree of intensity
among people.
They easily change among individuals.
Needs exist in groups rather than in isolation.
They are often hidden from ones conscious
recognition.
They are non-static feelings unlike tangible
physical needs.
They greatly influenced behavior.

7.2 THE CONCEPTS AND

DEFINITIONS OF MOTIVATION
The

word MOTIVATION comes

from the root word motive
which means action to satisfy a
need. Motive can be safely
concluded as the mainspring of
actions in persons. In other
words motivation means the
need or reason that makes man
do more work.

MCFARLAND DEFINED
MOTIVATION

as mainly psychological. It
relates to these forces
operating within the
individual personnel that
impel him to act or not to
act in certain ways.

DALE S. BEACH
DEFINED MOTIVATION
AS
the

willingness to
expand energy to
achieve a goal or
reward.

WILLIAM G. SCOTT
DEFINED MOTIVATION AS
the

process of
stimulating people to act
to accomplish desired
goals.

KREITNER DEFINED
MOTIVATION AS
a

psychological process
that gives behavior,
purpose and direction.

MONDY DEFINED
MOTIVATION AS
the

willingness to
put forth effort in the
pursuit of
organizational goals.

TERRY AND FRANKLIN

DEFINED MOTIVATION AS
a

need or desire
within an individual
that drives him
towards goal-oriented
action.

FRED LUTHANS
DEFINED MOTIVATION
AS
a

process that starts with

physiological or psychological
deficiency or need that
activates behavior or a desire
that is aimed at a goal or an
incentive.

M.J JUCIUS DEFINED

MOTIVATION AS
the

act of
stimulating someone
or oneself to get a
desired course of
action.

ROBBINS AND COULTER

DEFINED MOTIVATION AS
the

willingness to exert
high levels of effort to
reach organizational goals,
conditioned by the efforts
ability to satisfy some
individual needs.

Rating Scale Method

The rating scale method in evaluating performance is a
variation of the checklist method. The scale contains a
number of traits or factors in evaluating the employee.
The two general types used are the continuous type and
the discontinuous type. In the continuous type, opposite
each factor is a straight line one end of which represent
the maximum degree and at the other end, the
minimum degree. The rater simply checks on the scale
the point indicating the degree that best describe that
best describe the employees performance on the trait
being rated. To avoid committing the error of halo
effect the discontinuous arrangement of the traits may
be used by alternatively reversing the poor-excellent
degree progression.

Weighting

Some, firms assign weight or numeral values to

each trait. Ratings such as Excellent, Good,
Average, Below Average, and Poor are
generally given by rater.

Management by Objectives

Management by Objectives is a form of

participative management in as much as
manager as well as rank-and-file employees set
their own targets in achieving the organizations
goals. Standard of performance are set as a
basis for appraisal.

Developing an Appraisal Program

The appraisal program enables the employee to

learn more about the duties and responsibility
related to his/her job; what constitutes
satisfactory performance and how well he lives
up to the standard of efficiency.

The following should be taken into account in establishing a

program for appraising employee performance:
Top managements approval and support in the form of policies
and procedure.
Selling the appraisal with the personnel development
program.
Determining the most appropriate plan to use.
Obtaining assistance from experts.
Preparing job descriptions.
Defining the coverage of plan.
Determining the traits or factor to be covered.
Qualities that characterize a good appraisal.
Structuring the rating form.
Determining the frequency of rating.
Employees right to ask for an appraisal interview.
Conducting a joint.
Informing the employee of the results of the appraisal .

Determining the Rating Accurancy

Rating is instrument used to evaluate performance is of

utmost importance because the value of the performance
depends upon its validity and reliability.

7.3 MASLOWS NEED APPROACH

Psychologist believe that the satisfaction of
needs have certain priorities. Abraham Maslow
(1954) attempted to synthesize a large body of
research related to human motivation. Prior to
maslow, researchers generally focused
separately on such factors as biology,
achievement, or power to explain what
energizes, directs and sustains human behavior.

A.H Maslow identified the (8) Eight levels of

needs according to priority as follows:

1. Physiological: hunger, thirst, bodily comforts, etc;

2. Safety/security: out of danger
3. Belongingness and love: affiliate with others, be
accepted.
4. Esteem: to achieve, be competent, gain approval
and recognition.
5. Cognitive: to know, to understand, and explore.
6. Aesthetic: symmetry, order, and beauty;
7. Self-actualization: to find self-fulfillment and
realize ones potential;
8. Self-transcendence: to connect to something
beyond the ego or to helf others find self-fulfillment
and realize their potential.

Maslows basic position is that as one becomes

more self-actualized and self-transcendent, one
becomes more wise (develops wisdom) and
automatically knows what to do in a wide variety of
situations. Daniels (2001) suggests that Maslows
ultimate conclusion that the highest levels of selfactualization are transcendent in their nature may
be one of his most important contributions to the
study of human behavior and motivation.
Norwood (1999) propose that Maslows hierarchy be
used to describe the kinds of information that
individuals seek at different levels. Individuals at
the safety level need helping information. They
seek to be assisted in seeing how they can be safe
and secure.

Maslow published his first conceptualization of his

theory over 50 years ago (Maslow, 1943) and it has since
become one of the most popular and often cited theories
of human motivation. An interesting phenomenon
related to Maslows work is that in spite of a lack of
evidence to support his hierarchy, it enjoys wide
acceptance (Wahba&Bridgewell, 1976; Milford &
Rosenthal, 1995)

Need Priorities at Work

Studies have shown that managers and professionals
generally value self-realization highly whereas service
and manual workers value job security most highly.
Needs are highly influenced by ones environment. The
importance of a need to an employee depends in a part
on the degree of importance that said need has to his
social and cultural environment. Among government
employees it has been likewise found that supervisors
emphasize security and belonging needs, while white
collars workers at comparable job levels are more
concerned with self-actualization needs.

Employees Wants
Wants are derived from needs. Wants are motivating
factors conditioned by the environment. By appealing to
wants, management achieves operational motivation.
However the basic foundation of motivational programs
relate at all times to needs. Needs are the causes of
action but wants are the indicators of the types of action
to take in developing incentives. Management should
understand that in the desire to satisfy wants a person
does not always try to choose the best action. An
incentive is more motivating than compensation which
actually gives the better reward because an employee
views the simple incentive as leading toward
satisfactory goals.

Perception
Mans reactions to incentives are contingent on how he
perceives the whole situation. He evaluates what he
perceives and decides to act on the basis of his decision
which may be either rational or emotional. While decision
involves both emotion and reason, experience has shown
that emotional values predominate in mans relationship
on the job o away from it. It has been observed that
man decides what he believes is right and uses reasons to
support it. Each individual perceives facts in term of his
problems, his interest and his background. He tends to
ignore details that do not dovetail with his personal
needs. In the social world, perceptions seldom agree and
consequently make the managers job perplexing.

Motivational and Maintenance Factors

Some jobscontinuously operate to dissatisfy employees
when the needed conditions are absent, but their presence
does not motivate employees in a strong way. These potent
dissatisfactions are called maintenance factors. In the
job, they are necessary to maintain a reasonable level of
satisfaction in employees. A set of job conditions operate
primarily to build strong motivation and high job
satisfaction, but their absence is rarely strongly
dissatisfying. These conditions are known as
motivational factors or motivators or satisfiers

7.4 HERZBERG TWO-FACTOR THEORY

In the Herzberg study the six motivational factors are
included. They are: Achievements, recognition
advancement, work itself, possibility of growth and
responsibility.
Achievement and responsibility, which are motivational
factors, are generally related directly to the job itself, the
employees performance on it, and the recognition and
growth which he obtains from it.
To the environment, external job, maintenance factors are
mostly are related.
An employee is primarily is motivated strongly by what he
does for himself.

Intrinsic and extrinsic motivators

Intrinsic motivators are direct motivation to
perform the work because the act of
performance is in itself rewarding. Extrinsic
Motivators are those which take place after
work or away from work, and which provides
no direct satisfaction at the time the work is
done.

Job Enrichment
Job enrichment has to do with providing improvements in
terms of motivators. Job enrichment is intended to keep the
maintenance factors steady or higher while increasing
motivational factors. Job enrichment is in a way different
from job enlargement in that the former seeks to bring more
motivators to the job by offering the employee with more
responsibility, more intrinsically satisfying work functions
and more power over his environment. In job enlargement
the job is made more complex and wider in scope in order to
make full use of each employees intellect and skills.

7.5 H. VROOMS MOTIVATIONAL MODEL;

EXPENTANCY, INSTRUMENTALITY AND VALENCE

H. Vrooms motivational model explains that

a persons motivation toward an action at a
particular time is determined by the
anticipated values of positive and negative
outcomes. It is referred to as motivation.

Motivation is claimed to be the product of the

anticipated values from an action and the perceived
probability that these values will be achieved by the
action. Valence is the anticipated value and is
defined as the strength of a persons perceived
probability referred to as expectancy is defined as
the strength or belief that a particular act will be
followed by particular outcome. Motivation is the
strength of a drive towards an action.
The motivational relationship is expressed as
follows: Valence x Expectancy = Motivation

Following the above model, two (2) things can

be done in order to motivate a person to work:
first the positive value of the outcomes through
better communication can be stressed and
increased by increasing rewards; second, by
increasing the employees expectancy that the
work will really lead him to the desired
outcome, that is, by strengthening the
connection between the work and the outcome.
This can be attained through improve
communication or by increasing the actual
probabilities of the outcome.

7.6

E
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C ti n
a
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Variance in the interpretation of Factors

Differences in the interpretation or application of supervisors are
causes of errors in rating employees performance.

The Halo Effect

The halo effect result from tendency of the rater to be
highly influenced by one or more dominant traits of the
workers performance.

Rewarding Performance
An organization may have policy of giving variable pay for each
level.

The Three(3) Principal Approaches

Merit- Wage increases bring a new status to people
because they are based on flexible item called
merit.
Seniority- Seniority is dependable but it rewards
an employee only for his individual difference as
opposed to mutual interest.
Combination of Two

Using Economic Incentive System

An incentive is an external factor that
influences an individual, whereas motive is
an internal pressure that
drives him on.
Role of Icentive System
There is hardly any job to which an
incentive system of some sort would not
apply. The use of incentives varies with the
condition or situations obtaining in each
industry or calling.

Profit and Production Sharing

Profit sharing is defined as the sharing with employees

of the profits remaining after all regular costs have been

paid, including competitive wages and income taxes. It is
not a subtstitute for a wages and excludes incentive plans
directly tied to production.
Disadvantages of profit-sharing as viewed by employees are as
follows;
1. Profit sharing is not directly related to the employees effort on his
own job. He may work harder and yet receive no additional income
because of profit condition.
2. Reward are received too long after work performance.
3. There is always the possibility of having small profit or none at all.
For profit sharing to developed a
community of interest, employees need to understand how its works
and feel a sense of equity in its provision.

Production-sharing Plans
Production-sharing is another useful
group incentive. A production-sharing plan
is not based on profit, but rather , it
allocates labor a normal labor cost as a
percentage of a total product cost or the
total peso sales.
Used of Wage Incentives
One way to release the workers capacity to
produce is through wage incentives. In order to
reap the potential benefits of wage incentives, it
is necessary for management to carefully plan so
that incentive synchronize with the whole
operating system.

Rate-setting

A wage incentive plan is developed by

first setting up performance standards
through
rate-setting. Rate-setting in
incentive plans pertains to the
determination of standard output for each
job.
The Supervisors Role
The Supervisor can expect to increase
productivity. The Supervisor has to be
familiar with wage incentive concepts and the
details of his own plan so that he can interpret
it.

Loose Rates

Management generally tries to prevent loose rates

but workers try to keep them under wraps for the
reason that job made easier.

Intergroup Work Relations

Disharmony may be brought about between

incentive workers and day workers on account of
factory wage incentives.

Restriction of Output

Restriction of output, by which workers limit

their production is a difficulty experienced with
wage incentive because it thwarts the purpose
of incentives.

THE END