Convection

Free or natural convection

(induced by buoyancy
forces)

Convection
forced convection (driven
externally)

May occur with

phase change
(boiling,
condensation)

Heat transfer rate q = h( Ts-T )W

h=heat transfer coefficient (W /m2K)
(h is not a property. It depends on geometry ,nature of flow, thermodynamics
properties etc.)

Forced convection: Non-dimensional groupings

Nusselt No. Nu = hx / k = (convection heat transfer strength)/
(conduction heat transfer strength)
Prandtl No. Pr = / = (momentum diffusivity)/ (thermal diffusivity)
Reynolds No. Re = U x / = (inertia force)/(viscous force)
Viscous force provides the dampening effect for disturbances in the
fluid. If dampening is strong enough laminar flow
Otherwise, instability turbulent flow critical Reynolds number

Laminar

Turbulent

FORCED CONVECTION:
External flow (Over flat plate)
An internal flow is surrounded by solid boundaries that can restrict the
development of its boundary layer, for example, a pipe flow. An external flow, on
the other hand, are flows over bodies immersed in an unbounded fluid so that the
flow boundary layer can grow freely in one direction. Examples include the flows
over airfoils, ship hulls, turbine blades, etc.
U
U
U
U
Dye streak

laminar

turbulent

transition
Fluid particle adjacent to the solid surface is at rest.
These particles act to retard the motion of adjoining layers.

PAGE 4

Laminar Boundary Layer Development

Boundary layer growth: x

Initial growth is fast
Growth rate d/dx 1/x,
decreasing downstream.

Wall shear stress: w 1/x

As the boundary layer grows, the
wall shear stress decreases as the
velocity gradient at the wall becomes
less steep.

Boundary layer equations (laminar flow)

TW

Equations for 2D, laminar, steady boundary layer flow

Conservation of mass :

u v
0
x y

u
u
dU u

Conservation of x - momentum : u v
U

x
y
dx y y
T
T T

Conservation of energy : u
v

x
y y y

dU
Note: For a flat plate, U is constant , hence
0
dx

Exact solutions: Blasius

5
Boundary layer thickness

x
Re x
w
0.664
Skin friction coefficient C f 1

2
Re x
2 U

Re U x , u
x
w

1
1.328
Average drag coefficient, C D C f dx
L0
Re L
Local Nusselt number

Nu x 0.332 Re x Pr

Average Nusselt number

N u 0.664 Re L Pr
1

y 0

UL
Re L

Heat transfer coefficient

Local

heat transfer coefficient:

1

Nu x k 0.332k Re x Pr
hx

x
x
Average

heat transfer coefficient:

h
Film

Nu k
L

0.664k Re L Pr

L
2

temperature, Tfilm

For heated or cooled surfaces, the thermophysical properties within

the boundary layer should be selected based on the average
temperature of the wall and the free stream;

T film

1
2

Tw T

Internal Flow Convection

-constant surface temperature case
Another commonly encountered internal convection condition is when the
surface temperature of the pipe is a constant. The temperature distribution in
this case is drastically different from that of a constant heat flux case. Consider
the following pipe flow configuration:
Constant Ts
dx
Tm,o
Tm,i

& p [(Tm dTm ) Tm ]

Energy change mC
& p dTm
mC
Tm

Tm+dTm Energy in hA(T T )

s
m
qs=hA(Ts-Tm)

Energy change energy in

& p dTm hA(Ts Tm )
mC

Temperature distribution
& p dTm hA(Ts Tm ),
mC
Note: q hA(Ts Tm ) is valid locally only, since Tm is not a constant
dTm
hA

, where A Pdx, and P is the perimeter of the pipe

& P
(Tm Ts )
mC
Integrate from the inlet to a diatance x downstream:

Tm ( x )

Tm ,i

x hP
dTm
P

dx
0 mC
& P
& P
(Tm Ts )
mC

ln(Tm Ts ) |TTmm ,(i x )

hdx

Ph
x, where L is the total pipe length
& P
mC

and h is the averaged convection coefficient of the pipe between 0 & x.

1 x
h hdx,
x 0

or

hdx hx

Temperature distribution
Tm ( x ) Ts
Ph
exp(
x ), for constant surface temperature
& P
Tm ,i Ts
mC
Constant surface
temperature
Ts

T( x)

Tm(x)

The difference between the averaged fluid temperature and the surface
temperature decreases exponentially further downstream along the pipe.

Log-Mean Temperature Difference

For the entire pipe:
Tm ,o Ts To
h ( PL)

exp(
)
& P
Tm ,i Ts
Ti
mC

& P
or mC

hAs
To
ln(
)
Ti

& P (Tm ,o Tm ,i ) mC
& P ((Ts Tm ,i ) (Ts Tm ,o ))
q mC
& P ( Ti To ) hAs
mC

To Ti
hAs Tlm
To
ln(
)
Ti

To Ti
where Tlm
is called the log mean temperature difference.
To
ln(
)
Ti
This relation is valid for the entire pipe.

Free Convection
A free convection flow field is a self-sustained flow driven by the
presence of a temperature gradient. (As opposed to a forced
convection flow where external means are used to provide the flow.)
As a result of the temperature difference, the density field is not
uniform also. Buoyancy will induce a flow current due to the
gravitational field and the variation in the density field. In general,
a free convection heat transfer is usually much smaller compared to
a forced convection heat transfer. It is therefore important only
when there is no external flow exists.
cold
Flow is unstable and a circulatory
pattern will be induced.

T
hot

Basic Definitions
Buoyancy effect:
Surrounding fluid, cold,
Warm,
Hot plate

Net force=(- gV

The density difference is due to the temperature difference and it can be

characterized by ther volumetric thermal expansion coefficient, :

1
1
1
( )P

T
T T
T
T

Grashof Number and Rayleigh Number

Define Grashof number, Gr, as the ratio between the buoyancy force and the
viscous force:
3
3

g (TS T ) L
g TL
Gr

Grashof number replaces the Reynolds number in the convection correlation

equation. In free convection, buoyancy driven flow sometimes dominates the
flow inertia, therefore, the Nusselt number is a function of the Grashof number
and the Prandtle number alone. Nu=f(Gr, Pr). Reynolds number will be
important if there is an external flow. (combined forced and free convection.
In many instances, it is better to combine the Grashof number and the
Prandtle number to define a new parameter, the Rayleigh number, Ra=GrPr.
The most important use of the Rayleigh number is to characterize the laminar
to turbulence transition of a free convection boundary layer flow. For
example, when Ra>109, the vertical free convection boundary layer flow over
a flat plate becomes turbulent.