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Consumer Behavior
Introduction
How are consumer preferences used to
determine demand?
How do consumers allocate income to
the purchase of different goods?
How do consumers with limited income
decide what to buy?
Introduction
How can we determine the nature of
consumer preferences for observations
of consumer behavior?
How can cost of living indexes measure
the well-being of consumers?
Consumer Behavior
The theory of consumer behavior can be
used to help answer these and many
more questions
Theory of consumer behavior
Consumer Behavior
There are three steps involved in the
study of consumer behavior
1. Consumer Preferences
2. Budget Constraints
Consumer Behavior
3. Given preferences and limited incomes,
what amount and type of goods will be
purchased?
Consumer Preferences
How might a consumer compare different
groups of items available for purchase?
A market basket is a collection of one or
more commodities
Individuals can choose between market
baskets containing different goods
More is better
Consumer Preferences
Consumer preferences can be
represented graphically using
indifference curves
Indifference curves represent all
combinations of market baskets that the
person is indifferent to
10
Indifference Curves:
An Example
Market Basket
Units of Food
Units of Clothing
20
30
10
50
40
20
30
40
10
20
10
40
11
Indifference Curves:
An Example
Graph the points with one good on the xaxis and one good on the y-axis
Plotting the points, we can make some
immediate observations about
preferences
More is better
12
Indifference Curves:
An Example
Clothin 50
g
40
30
E
A
20
10
10
20
30
40
Food
13
Indifference Curves:
An Example
Points such as B & D have more of one
good but less of another compared to A
14
Indifference Curves:
An Example
Clothin
g
50
40
E
A
30
20
D
G
10
Indifferent
between
points B, A, &
D
E is
preferred to
points on U1
Points on U1
are preferred
Uto H & G
1
10
20
30
40
Food
15
Indifference Curves
Any market basket lying northeast of an
indifference curve is preferred to any
market basket that lies on the
indifference curve
Points on the curve are preferred to
points southwest of the curve
16
Indifference Curves
Indifference curves slope downward to
the right
17
Indifference Curves
To describe preferences for all
combinations of goods/services, we have
a set of indifference curves an
indifference map
18
Indifference Map
Clothing
Market basket A
is preferred to B.
Market basket B is
preferred to D.
D
B
A
U3
U2
U1
Food
19
Indifference Maps
Indifference maps give more information
about shapes of indifference curves
20
Indifference Maps
Clothing
U1
B is preferred to D
A is indifferent to B
&D
B must be
indifferent to D but
that cant be if B is
preferred to D
A
B
D
U2
U1
Food
21
Indifference Curves
The shapes of indifference curves
describe how a consumer is willing to
substitute one good for another
A to B, give up 6 clothing to get 1 food
D to E, give up 2 clothing to get 1 food
22
Indifference Curves
A
Clothing 16
14
12
-6
10
1
-4
8
6
B
D
1
-2
E
1 -1
2
1
Food
23
Indifference Curves
We measure how a person trades one
good for another using the marginal rate
of substitution (MRS)
It quantifies the amount of one good a
consumer will give up to obtain more of
another good
It is measured by the slope of the
indifference curve
24
Clothing 16
14
12
MRS C
MRS =
6
-6
10
1
-4
8
6
B
D
1
-2
MRS = 2
E
1 -1
G
Food
25
26
27
28
They
29
Consumer Preferences
Apple
4
Juice
(glasses)
Perfect
Substitute
s
1
0
Orange Juice
(glasses)
30
Consumer Preferences
Perfect Complements
Two goods are perfect complements when
the indifference curves for the goods are
shaped as right angles
Example: If you have 1 left shoe and 1 right
shoe, you are indifferent between having
more left shoes only
Must
31
Consumer Preferences
Left
Shoes
Perfect
Complements
4
3
2
1
0
Right Shoes
32
Consumer Preferences
We have assumed all our commodities
are goods
There are commodities we dont want
more of - bads
Examples
Air pollution
Asbestos
33
Consumer Preferences
How do we account for bads in our
preference analysis?
air
Pollution reduction
Asbestos removal
34
Consumer Preferences:
An Application
In designing new cars, automobile
executives must determine how much
time and money to invest in restyling
versus increased performance
Higher demand for car with better styling and
performance
Both cost more to improve
35
Consumer Preferences:
An Application
An analysis of consumer preferences
would help to determine where to spend
more on change: performance or styling
Some consumers will prefer better styling
and some will prefer better performance
36
Consumer Preferences:
An Application
Styling
These
consumers
place a
greater value
on
performance
than styling
Performance
37
Consumer Preferences:
An Application
Styling
These consumers
place a greater
value on styling
than performance
Performance
38
Consumer Preferences:
An Application
Knowing which group dominates the
market will help decide where
redesigning dollars should go
A recent study in the US shows that over
the past two decades, most consumers
have preferred styling over performance
39
Consumer Preferences
The theory of consumer behavior does
not required assigning a numerical value
to the level of satisfaction
Although ranking of market baskets is
good, sometimes numerical value is
useful
40
Consumer Preferences
Utility
A numerical score representing the
satisfaction that a consumer gets from a
given market basket
If buying 3 copies of Microeconomics makes
you happier than buying one shirt, then we
say that the books give you more utility than
the shirt
41
Utility
Utility function
Formula that assigns a level of utility to
individual market baskets
If the utility function is
U(F,C) = F + 2C
A market basket with 8 units of food and 3 units of
clothing gives a utility of
14 = 8 + 2(3)
2005 Pearson Chapter 3
42
Utility - Example
Market
Basket
Food
Clothing
Utility
8 + 2(3) = 14
6 + 2(4) = 14
4 + 2(4) = 12
43
Utility - Example
Baskets for each level of utility can be
plotted to get an indifference curve
44
Utility - Example
Clothing
Basket
C
2.5(10)
A
B
10(2.5)
15
10
25 = 5(5)
25 =
U3 = 100
U = FC
25 =
10
U2 = 50
15
U1 = 25
Food
45
Utility
Although we numerically rank baskets
and indifference curves, numbers are
ONLY for ranking
A utility of 4 is not necessarily twice as
good as a utility of 2
There are two types of rankings
Ordinal ranking
Cardinal ranking
46
Utility
Ordinal Utility Function
47
Utility
The actual unit of measurement for utility
is not important
An ordinal ranking is sufficient to explain
how most individual decisions are made
48
Budget Constraints
Preferences do not explain all of
consumer behavior
Budget constraints also limit an
individuals ability to consume in light of
the prices they must pay for various
goods and services
49
Budget Constraints
The Budget Line
Indicates all combinations of two
commodities for which total money spent
equals total income
We assume only 2 goods are consumed, so
we do not consider savings
50
51
PF F PC C I
All income is allocated to food (F) and/or clothing
(C)
52
Example:
53
Budget Constraints
Market
Basket
Food
PF = $1
Clothing
PC = $2
I = PFF + PCC
40
$80
20
30
$80
40
20
$80
60
10
$80
80
$80
Income
54
(I/PC) = 40
C
1
PF
Slope
- F
2
PC
30
10
20
D
20
E
10
G
0
20
40
60
80 = (I/PF)
Food
55
56
57
I PX X PY Y
I PX X PY Y
I PX
X Y
PY PY
2005 Pearson Chapter 3
58
Budget Constraints
The Budget Line
The vertical intercept, I/PC, illustrates the
maximum amount of C that can be
purchased with income I
The horizontal intercept, I/PF, illustrates the
maximum amount of F that can be
purchased with income I
59
60
61
62
An increase in
income shifts
the budget line
outward
80
60
A decrease in
income shifts
the budget line
inward
40
20
0
L3
(I = L1
(I = $80)
$40)
40
80
120
L2
(I = $160)
160
Food
(units per week)
63
64
65
A decrease in the
price of food to
$.50 changes
the slope of the
budget line and
rotates it outward.
40
L3
L2
L1
(PF = 1/2)
(PF = 1)
(PF = 2)
40
80
An increase in the
price of food to
$2.00 changes
the slope of the
budget line and
rotates it inward.
120
160
Food
(units per week)
66
67
68
Consumer Choice
Given preferences and budget
constraints, how do consumers choose
what to buy?
Consumers choose a combination of
goods that will maximize their
satisfaction, given the limited budget
available to them
69
Consumer Choice
The maximizing market basket must
satisfy two conditions:
1. It must be located on the budget line
70
Consumer Choice
Graphically, we can see different
indifference curves of a consumer
choosing between clothing and food
Remember that U3 > U2 > U1 for our
indifference curves
Consumer wants to choose highest utility
within their budget
71
Consumer Choice
Clothing
(units per
week)
A, B, C on budget line
D highest utility but
not affordable
C highest affordable
utility
Consumer chooses C
40
A
30
20
C
U3
U1
B
0
20
40
80
U2
Food (units
72 per week)
Consumer Choice
Consumer will choose highest
indifference curve on budget line
In previous graph, point C is where the
indifference curve is just tangent to the
budget line
Slope of the budget line equals the slope
of the indifference curve at this point
73
Consumer Choice
Recall, the slope of an indifference curve
is:
C
MRS
F
Further, the slope of the budget line is:
PF
Slope
PC
2005 Pearson Chapter 3
74
Consumer Choice
Therefore, it can be said at consumers
optimal consumption point,
PF
MRS
PC
75
Consumer Choice
It can be said that satisfaction is
maximized when marginal rate of
substitution (of F and C) is equal to the
ratio of the prices (of F and C)
Note this is ONLY true at the optimal
consumption point
76
Consumer Choice
Optimal consumption point is where
marginal benefits equal marginal costs
MB = MRS = benefit associated with
consumption of 1 more unit of food
MC = cost of additional unit of food
1 unit food = unit clothing
PF/PC
77
Consumer Choice
If MRS PF/PC then individuals can
reallocate basket to increase utility
If MRS > PF/PC
78
Consumer Choice
Clothing
(units per
week)
40
30
-10C
20
+10F
20
40
U1
80
79
Consumer Choice:
An Application Revisited
Consider two groups of consumers, each
wishing to spend $10,000 on the styling
and performance of a car
Each group has different preferences
80
Consumer Choice:
An Application Revisited
By finding the point of tangency between
a groups indifference curve and the
budget constraint, auto companies can
see how much consumers value each
attribute
81
Consumer Choice:
An Application Revisited
Styling
$10,000
These consumers
want performance
worth $7000 and
styling worth $3000
$3,000
$7,000
$10,000Performance
82
Consumer Choice:
An Application Revisited
Styling
These
consumers want
styling worth
$7000 and
performance
worth $3000
$10,000
$7,000
$3,000
$10,000Performance
83
Consumer Choice:
An Application Revisited
Once a company knows preferences, it
can design a production and marketing
plan
Company can then make a sensible
strategic business decision on how to
allocate performance and styling on new
cars
84
Consumer Choice
A corner solution exists if a consumer
buys in extremes, and buys all of one
category of good and none of another
85
A Corner Solution
Frozen
Yogurt
(cups
monthly)
A
U1 U2 U3
A corner solution
exists at point B.
86
A Corner Solution
At point B, the MRS of ice cream for frozen
yogurt is greater than the slope of the budget
line
If the consumer could give up more frozen
yogurt for ice cream, he would do so
However, there is no more frozen yogurt to give
up
Opposite is true if corner solution was at point A
87
A Corner Solution
When a corner solution arises, the
consumers MRS does not necessarily
equal the price ratio
In this instance it can be said that:
PIceCream
MRS
PFrozen Yogurt
2005 Pearson Chapter 3
88
A Corner Solution
If the MRS is, in fact, significantly greater
than the price ratio, then a small
decrease in the price of frozen yogurt will
not alter the consumers market basket
89
90
91
U2
U1
Q
Education ($)
92
C
U3
U2
If gift is
unrestricted,
Jane can be at
point C on U3
Better off
than with
restricted gift
U1
Q
Education ($)
93
Revealed Preferences
If we know the choices a consumer has
made, we can determine what their
preferences are if we have information
about a sufficient number of choices that
are made when prices and incomes vary.
94
Revealed Preferences
Two Budget Lines
Clothing
(units per
month)
l1
l2
A
B
D
95
Revealed Preferences
Two Budget Lines
Clothing
(units per
month)
l1
l2
A
B is
preferred
to
all market
baskets
in the
yellow
area
B
D
96
Revealed Preference
As you continue to change the budget
line, individuals can tell you which basket
they prefer to others
The more the individual reveals, the
more you can discern about their
preferences
Eventually you can map out an
indifference curve
2005 Pearson Chapter 3
97
Revealed Preferences
Four Budget Lines
I3: E revealed preferred to A
Clothing
(units per
month)
l3
l1
l4
A
l2
B
A: preferred to all
market baskets in
the yellow area
98
99
100
Marginal Utility
The principle of diminishing marginal
utility states that as more of a good is
consumed, the additional utility the
consumer gains will be smaller and
smaller
Note that total utility will continue to
increase since consumer makes choices
that make them happier
2005 Pearson Chapter 3
101
102
0 MUF(F) MUC(C)
No change in total utility along an indifference curve.
Trade off of one good to the other leaves the consumer
just as well off.
103
C / F MU F / MU C
Since
C / F MRS of F for C
We can say
MRS MUF/MUC
2005 Pearson Chapter 3
104
MRS PF /PC
Since the MRS is also equal to the ratio of
the marginal utility of consuming F and C
MU F /MU C PF /PC
2005 Pearson Chapter 3
105
MU F / PF MU C / PC
106
107
Cost-of-Living Indexes
Social Security payments are given to
qualifying individuals
Each year the benefit increases equal to
the rate of increase of the Consumer
Price Index (CPI)
108
Cost-of-Living Indexes
Does the CPI give a good measure of
inflation and therefore a measure of the
cost of living changes?
Should the CPI be used to measure how
much cost of living has increased,
determining increases in government
payment programs?
109
Cost-of-Living Indexes
The ideal cost of living index represents
the cost of attaining a given level of utility
at current prices relative to the cost of
attaining the same utility at base prices
110
Cost-of-Living Indexes
To obtain the ideal cost of living index
would require too much information, such
as consumer preferences as well as
prices and expenditures
Actual price indexes are based on
consumer purchases, not preferences
111
Cost-of-Living Indexes
Laspeyres price index
Amount of money at current year prices that
an individual requires to purchase a bundle
of goods/services chosen in a base year
divided by the cost of purchasing the same
bundle at base-year prices
Ex: CPI
112
Cost-of-Living Indexes
The Laspeyres price index assumes that
consumers do not alter their consumption
patterns as prices change
Tends to overstate the true cost of living
index
Using the CPI to adjust retirement
benefits will tend to overcompensate
most recipients, requiring greater
government expenditure
2005 Pearson Chapter 3
113
Cost-of-Living Indexes
Paasche index
Focuses on the cost of buying the current
years bundle
Amount of money at current-year prices that
an individual requires to purchase a current
bundle of goods/services divided by the cost
of purchasing the same bundle in a base
year
114
Cost-of-Living Indexes
Comparison of indexes
Both are fixed weight indexes
Quantities of various goods and services in
each index remain unchanged
Laspeyres index keeps quantities at base
year levels
Paasche index keeps unchanged quantities
at current year levels
115
Cost-of-Living Indexes
Chain-Weighted Indexes
Cost-of-living index that accounts for
changes in quantities of goods and services
Introduced to overcome problems that arose
when long-term comparisons were made
using fixed weight price indexes
116