DB2

Oracle

MS Access

Chapter

MySQL

ITS232
Introduction To
Database

FILE SYSTEMS & DATABASE

Data Models
The Importance of Data Models
2

Data models

Relatively simple representations, usually

graphical, of complex real-world data structures

Facilitate interaction among the designer, the

applications programmer, and the end user

End-users have different views and needs for

data

Data model organizes data for various users

Data Models
Data Model Basic Building Blocks
3

Entity
anything about which data are to be collected and stored
Attribute
a characteristic of an entity
Relationship
describes an association among entities
Constraint
a restriction placed on the data/user-defined structures
that let you restrict the behaviors of
columns/attributes

Data Models
Data Model Basic Building Blocks
4

Based on previous IBM DB2 lab, determine:

Entity
PERSON, VEHICLE, BUILDING, PLANT, ANIMAL, etc
Attribute
person_name, animal_family, scientific_name, etc
Relationship
1:1, 1:M, M:N
Constraint
NOT NULL, CHECK, PRIMARY KEY, FOREIGN KEY, TRIGGER

Data Models
Business Rules
5

Brief, precise, and unambiguous descriptions of

policies, procedures, or principles within a
specific organization
Apply to any organization that stores and uses
data to generate information
Description of operations that help to create and
enforce actions within that organizations
environment

Data Models
Business Rules
6

Must be rendered in writing/available in written form

Must be kept up to date

Sometimes are external to the organization

Must be easy to understand and widely distributed

Describe characteristics of the data as viewed by the

company:
corresponds to a table (ERD)
Entities

Relationship
s

associations between entities

Attributes

characteristics of entities

Connectivity

describe the relationship classification (min

& max)

Constraints

limitations on the type of data accepted

Data Models
Discovering Business Rules
7

Sources of Business Rules:

Company managers
Policy makers
Department managers
Written documentation
Procedures
Standards
Operations manuals
Direct interviews with end users

Data Models
Discovering Business Rules
8

Business rules example:

Data Models
Translating Business Rules into Data Model Components
9

Standardize companys view of data

Act as a communications tool between users
and designers
Allow designer:

to understand the nature, role, and scope of data

to understand business processes
to develop appropriate relationship participation rules
and constraints

Promote creation of an accurate data model

Data Models
Discovering Business Rules
10

Generally
Nouns translate into entities
Verbs translate into relationships among entities
Relationships are bi-directional
Fact finding techniques:
The formal process of using techniques such as
interview and questionnaire to collect facts about
system, requirements and preferences.
To captures the essential facts necessary to build the
required database
What facts are collected?
Captured facts about the current and/or future system.

Data Models
Fact Finding Techniques
11

Examining
documents
(document
review)

Questionnaire

5 commonly
used fact
finding
techniques

Research

Interviewing

Observation the
organization in
operations

Data Models
The Evolution of Data Models
12

Hierarchical Database Model

Represented by a group of records that relates to each
others by a pointer

Network Database Model

Based on set theory, a set consists a collection of records

Relational Database Model

Based on the mathematical concept of relational

Object-Oriented Model
Based on object oriented concepts

Data Models
The Evolution of Data Models
13

Hierachical Database Model

Developed in the 1960s to manage large amounts of data for

complex manufacturing projects

Basic logical structure is represented by an upside-down

tree or by a group of records that relates to each others by
a pointer
The uppermost record is a Root
The lower record in a hierarchy is a Child

Depicts a set of one-to-many (1:M) relationships between

a parent and its children segments
Each parent can have many children
each child has only one parent

Data Models
The Evolution of Data Models
14

Hierachical Database Model

Data Models
The Evolution of Data Models
15

Hierachical Database Model

Root

Abu

Johor

3000

A001

Nut

Washer

Samad Kedah

A002

Washer

2500

Zaitun Melaka 4500

A003

Hammer Nut

A004

Bolt Nut

Data Models
The Evolution of Data Models
16

Hierachical Database Model

Root
Segme
nt

Source:
http://worldacademyonline.com/article/25/359/data_models__relational__hierarchical_and_n
etwork_.html

Data Models
The Evolution of Data Models
17

Hierachical Database Model

Advantages
Many of the hierarchical data models features
formed the foundation for current data models
Its database application advantages are replicated,
albeit in a different form, in current database
environments
Generated a large installed (mainframe) base,
created a pool of programmers who developed
numerous tried-and-true business applications

Data Models
The Evolution of Data Models
18

Network Database Model

Develop in 1970 in Conference on Data Systems

Languages (CODASYL), by Database Task Group
(DBTG)

Created to
Represent complex data relationships more
effectively
Improve database performance
Impose a database standard

Resembles hierarchical model

Collection of records in 1:M relationships

Data Models
The Evolution of Data Models
19

Network Database Model

Set
Relationship
Composed of at least two record types
Owner
Equivalent to the hierarchical models parent
Member
Equivalent to the hierarchical models child

A parent can have many child records

A child can have more than one parent record

Data Models
The Evolution of Data Models
20

Network Database Model

Data Models
The Evolution of Data Models
21

Network Database Model

CUSTOMER
Abu

Johor

3000

Samad

Kedah

2500

Zaitun

Melaka

INVOICE

PRODUCT

A001

Nut

A002

Washer

A003

Hammer

A004

Bolt

4500

Data Models
The Evolution of Data Models
22

Network Database Model

Source:
http://worldacademyonline.com/article/25/359/data_models__relational__hierarchical_and_n
etwork_.html

Data Models
The Evolution of Data Models
23

Network Database Model

Disadvantages
Too cumbersome/difficult to handle
The lack of ad hoc query capability put heavy
pressure on programmers
Any structural change in the database could
produce havoc in all application programs that drew
data from the database
Many database old-timers can recall the
interminable information delays

Data Models
The Evolution of Data Models
24

Relational Model

Developed by Codd (IBM) in 1970

considered ingenious but impractical in 1970
Conceptually simple, based on mathematical concept of
relational
Computers lacked power to implement the relational model
Today, microcomputers can run sophisticated relational
database software
Relational Database Management System (RDBMS)
Performs same basic functions provided by hierarchical and
network DBMS systems, in addition to a host of other functions
Most important advantage of the RDBMS is its ability to hide the
complexities of the relational model from the user

Data Models
The Evolution of Data Models
25

Relational Model
Table
(relations)
Relational
diagram

Matrix consisting of a series of row/column

intersections
Related to each other through sharing a common
entity characteristic
Representation of relational databases entities,
attributes within those entities, and relationships
between those entities

Relational
Table

Stores a collection of related entities

Resembles a file

Relational
table is
purely
logical
structure

How data are physically stored in the database is

of no concern to the user or the designer
This property became the source of a real
database revolution

Data Models
The Evolution of Data Models
26

Relational Model

Example of table structure/relational table

Data Models
The Evolution of Data Models
27

Relational Model

Example of table with data/relational table

Data Models
The Evolution of Data Models
28

Relational Model

Example of table relationship/relational diagram

Data Models
The Evolution of Data Models
29

Relational Model

Example of form

Data Models
The Evolution of Data Models
30

Relational Model

Rise to dominance due in part to its powerful and

flexible query language
Structured Query Language (SQL) allows the user
to specify what must be done without specifying
how it must be done
SQL-based relational database application
involves:
User interface
A set of tables stored in the database
SQL engine

Data Models
The Evolution of Data Models
31

Relational Model

Entity Relationship (E-R) Model

Introduced by Chen in 1976
Widely accepted and adapted graphical tool for data
modeling
Graphical representation of entities and their
relationships in dB structure
Entity Relationship Diagram (ERD)
Uses graphic representations to model
database components
Entity is mapped to a relational table

Data Models
The Evolution of Data Models
32

Relational Model

Example of ERD

Chen

Crow
s
Foot

Data Models
The Evolution of Data Models
33

Object Oriented Model

Modeled both data and their relationships in a

single structure known as an object
OO data model (OODM) is the basis for the OO
database management system (OODBMS)

Data Models
The Evolution of Data Models
34

Object Oriented Model

Object described by its factual content

equivalent to entity in Relational Model
Includes information about relationships
between facts within object, and
relationships with other objects but still
unlike relational models entity
Subsequent OODM development allowed an
object to also contain all operations: changing its
data values, finding specific data values, printing
data values
Object becomes basic building block for
autonomous structures

Data Models
The Evolution of Data Models
35

Object Oriented Model

Object is an abstraction of a real-world entity

Attributes describe the properties of an object

E.g. Name, IC Number, Address

Objects that share similar characteristics are grouped

in classes

E.g. PERSON, VEHICLE

Shared structured (attributes) and behavior (methods)

Classes are organized in a class hierarchy

Inheritance is the ability of an object within the class
hierarchy to inherit the attributes and methods of
classes above it

Data Models
The Evolution of Data Models
36

Object Oriented Model

A comparison of the OO model and the ER model

Data Models
A Summary
37

Each new data model capitalized on the

shortcomings of previous models

Common characteristics:
Conceptual simplicity without compromising
the semantic completeness of the database
Represent the real world as closely as possible
Representation of real-world transformations
(behavior) must comply with consistency and
integrity characteristics of any data model

Data Models
A Summary: The development of data model
38

Semantic
data - data
is organized
in such a way
that it can be
interpreted
meaningfully
without
human
intervention

Data Models
Degrees of Data Abstraction
39

Way of classifying data models

Many processes begin at high level of abstraction
and proceed to an ever-increasing level of detail
Designing a usable database follows the same
basic process
The major purpose of a database system is to
provide users with an abstract view of the
system.
The system hides certain details of how data is
stored and created and maintained
Complexity should be hidden from database
users.

Data Models
Degrees of Data Abstraction
40

American National Standards Institute (ANSI) Standards

Planning and Requirements Committee (SPARC)

Defined a framework for data modeling based on

degrees of data abstraction (1970s):
External
Concept
ual
Internal

Data Models
Degrees of Data Abstraction
41

Data abstraction levels

Data Models
Three Level ANSI-SPARC Architecture
42

-users view

External
Model
1.
External
level

User 1

User 2

View 1

View 2

User n

Model
2.Conceptual
Conceptual
level

-designers view
-h/w independent
-s/w independent

Conceptual Schema

3.Internal
Internal
level
Model

-DBMSs view
-h/w independent
-s/w dependent

Internal Schema

Internal Model

Physical
data
Physical
Model
organization

-h/w dependent
-s/w dependent

Database

View n

ERD

Three Level ANSI-SPARC Architecture

External Model
43

End users view of the data environment

Requires that the modeler subdivide set of requirements

and constraints into functional modules that can be
examined within the framework of their external models

Advantages:
Easy to identify specific data required to support each
business units operations
Facilitates designers job by providing feedback about the
models adequacy
Creation of external models helps to ensure security
constraints in the database design
Simplifies application program development

Three Level ANSI-SPARC Architecture

External Model
44

Example of External Model for Tiny College

Three Level ANSI-SPARC Architecture

Conceptual Model
45

Global view of the entire database concept of the dB

Describe what data is stored in the dB and relations among
the data

Data as viewed by the entire organization logical

structure
Basis for identification and high-level description of main data
objects, avoiding details
Most widely used conceptual model is the entity relationship (ER)
model
Provides a relatively easily understood macro level view of data
environment

Software and Hardware Independent

Does not depend on the DBMS software used to implement the
model
Does not depend on the hardware used in the implementation

Three Level ANSI-SPARC Architecture

Conceptual Model
46

Example of Conceptual Model for Tiny college

Three Level ANSI-SPARC Architecture

Internal Model
47

Representation of the database as seen by the DBMS

Describes how the data is stored in the dB

Maps the conceptual model to the DBMS

Internal schema depicts a specific representation of an internal

model

Physical representation of the dB on the computer

Software Dependent and Hardware Independent

Depend on the DBMS software used to implement the model
Does not depend on the hardware used in the implementation
of the model

Three Level ANSI-SPARC Architecture

Internal Model
48

An Internal Model for Tiny College

Three Level ANSI-SPARC Architecture

Physical Model
49

The Physical Model

Operates at lowest level of abstraction, describing the way

data are saved on storage media such as disks or tapes

how the data is stored in the database

Software and Hardware Dependent

Requires that database designers have a detailed knowledge of

the hardware and software used to implement database design

Three Level ANSI-SPARC Architecture

Physical Model
50

The Physical Model

Summary of Data Models

The Evolution of Data Models
51

A data model is a (relatively) simple abstraction of a

complex real-world data environment

Basic data modeling components are:

i.
_____________________
ii.
_____________________
iii.
_____________________
iv.
_____________________

Data modeling requirements are a function of different data

views (global vs. local) and level of data abstraction

Summary of Data Models

The Evolution of Data Models
52

Hierarchical Database Model

_________________________________________________

Network Database Model

________________________________________________

Relational Database Model

_____________________________________________

Object-Oriented Model
_____________________________________________

Summary of Data Models

Three Level ANSI-SPARC Architecture
53

-users view

1. External level

User 1

User 2

View 1

View 2

User n

2. Conceptual level

-designers view
-h/w independent
-s/w independent

Conceptual Schema

3.Internal
Internal
level
Model

-DBMSs view
-h/w independent
-s/w dependent

Internal Schema

Physical
data
Physical
Model
organization

-h/w dependent
-s/w dependent

Database

View n

ERD