Aerospace Vehicles and

Systems
Unit 3A : Aircraft power plants

Topics to be discussed
Aircraft power plants, classification and principle

of operation.
Instruments and navigational aids.

PROPULSION - OVERVIEW
What is propulsion?
The word is derived from two Latin words:
pro meaning before or forwards and pellere meaning to drive.
Propulsion means to push forward or drive an object forward.
A propulsion system is a machine that produces thrust to push an object

forward.
On airplanes, thrust is mostly generated through some application of Newton's
third law of action and reaction.
A gas, or working fluid, is accelerated by a machine, and the reaction to this
acceleration produces a force on the engine.
For an aircraft is travelling through air in straight and level flight and at a
constant true airspeed (TAS) ;
The engines must produce a total thrust equal to the drag on the aircraft.
If the engine thrust exceeds the drag, the aircraft will accelerate, and if
the drag exceeds the thrust, the aircraft will slow down.
For all engine types available for aircraft propulsion, the thrust force must
always come from air or gas reaction forces normally acting on the
engine or propeller surfaces.

ARRANGEMENT OF THRUST AND DRAG FORCES

The engines must produce a total thrust equal to the

drag on the aircraft. If the engine thrust exceeds the
drag, the aircraft will accelerate, and if the drag
exceeds the thrust, the aircraft will slow down.

AIRCRAFT POWER PLANTS

The two common methods of aircraft propulsion are:
o a. The propeller powered by piston or gas turbine engine.
o b. The jet engine.

Propeller Engine

The engine power produced

drives a shaft which is
connected to a propeller via a
gearbox.
The propeller cuts through the
air accelerating it rearwards.
The blade of a propeller
behaves in the same way as the
aerofoil of an aircraft: the air
speeds up over the leading face
of the propeller blade causing a
reduced pressure with a
corresponding increase of
pressure on the rearward face .

THE JET ENGINE

In all cases of the jet engine, a high velocity exhaust gas is produced,

the velocity of which, relative to the engine, is considerably greater than

the aircraft speed (Va).
Thrust is produced according to the following equation:
T = m(Vj Va)
where Vj is now the velocity of the gas stream at the propelling nozzle.

This is a simplified version of the full thrust equation as the majority of

thrust produced is a result of the momentum change of the gas stream

and is called the momentum thrust.

ROCKET ENGINE

In the rocket engine, the gases which leave the engine are the

products of the combustion of the rocket propellants carried; therefore

no intake velocity term Va is required.
The simplified version of the equation giving the thrust produced thus
becomes: T = m x Vj, where m is the mass flow rate of the propellant
and Vj is the exhaust velocity.

Engine Operational Limits

Lecture notes by Wg Cdr B Prakash (Retd.)

INTERNAL COMBUSTION ENGINE

FAMILY

PISTON/RECIPROCATING
ENGINES

Introduction to Piston Engines

The internal combustion piston engine
or the reciprocating engine consists
basically of:
1. A cylinder which is closed at one
end, a piston which slides up and
down inside the cylinder,
2. A connecting rod and crank by
which reciprocating movement at
the piston is converted to rotary
movement of the crankshaft.
3. In the closed end of the cylinder,
known as the Cylinder Head, are
inlet and exhaust valves and a
sparking plug.

A Four-stroke Internal Combustion Engine

The Four Stroke Cycle

Constant Volume Diagram

The Four Stroke Cycle

The sequence of operations by which the engine converts heat energy into
mechanical energy is known as the four stroke or constant volume cycle.
A mixture of petrol and air is introduced into the cylinder during the induction
stroke and compressed during the compression stroke (1-2).
At this point the fluid is ignited, the heat generated causing a rapid increase in
pressure (2-3) which drives the piston down on its power stroke (3-4).
Finally, the waste products of combustion are ejected during the exhaust stroke
(4-1).

THE DIRECTION OF MOTION OF THE CRANKSHAFT

AND PISTON DURING THE FOUR STROKE CYCLE

One of the most noticeable differences between car and aero-engines is that,
with the exception of those fitted to light aircraft, the latter possess more
cylinders. This is because it is impracticable, for various reasons, to obtain much
more than 74.5 kW per cylinder; consequently a high output would not be
developed by a scaled-up version of a low-power engine.
Even in engines of modest power it is often better to use a number of small
cylinders in preference to fewer and larger, for not only does smoother
operation result, but also, in many cases, a smaller frontal area can be
obtained.

Reciprocating Engine Working Principle

The piston moves inside a cylinder, into which a gas is inducted, then heated

inside the cylinder itself by ignition of a fuel air mixture at high pressure
(internal combustion engine).
This hot, high pressure gases expand, pushing the piston to the bottom of the
cylinder (BDC) creating the Power stroke.
The piston is returned to the cylinder top (Top Dead Centre) either by a
flywheel or the power from other pistons connected to the same shaft.
In most types the "exhausted" gases are removed from the cylinder by this
stroke.
This completes the four strokes of a 4-stroke engine also representing 4 legs
of a cycle.
The linear motion of the piston is converted to a rotational motion by a
connecting rod and a crankshaft.
A flywheel is used to ensure continued smooth rotation (i.e. when there is no
power stroke). Multiple cylinder power strokes also act as a flywheel.
More cylinders in a reciprocating engine generally lead to a more vibrationfree (smooth) operation.
The total power output of a reciprocating engine is proportional to the volume
of the combined pistons' displacement.

IDEAL OTTO CYCLE

The figure shows a plot of pressure
versus gas volume cycle.
There are six numbered stages based
on the mechanical operation of the
engine.
For the ideal four stroke engine, the
intake stroke(1-2) and exhaust stroke
(6-1) are done at constant pressure and
do not contribute to the generation of
power by the engine.
During the compression stroke (2-3), work is done on the gas by the piston.
During the combustion stroke (3-4), the volume is held constant and heat is
released.
During the power stroke (4-5), work is done by the gas on the piston. Between
stage 5 and stage 6, residual heat is transferred to the surroundings so that the
temperature and pressure return to the initial conditions of stage 1 (or 2).
During the cycle, work is done on the gas by the piston between stages 2 and
3.
Work is done by the gas on the piston between stages 4 and 5.

IDEAL OTTO CYCLE

THE PROPELLER

Changes in propeller blade angle from hub to tip.

The propeller is a rotating airfoil, subject to induced drag, stalls, and other
aerodynamic principles that apply to any airfoil.
It provides the necessary thrust to pull, or in some cases push, the airplane
through the air.
The engine power is used to rotate the propeller, which in turn generates
thrust very similar to the manner in which a wing produces lift.
The amount of thrust produced depends on the shape of the airfoil, the angle of
attack of the propeller blade, and the r.p.m. of the engine.
The propeller itself is twisted so the blade angle changes from hub to tip. The
greatest angle of incidence, or the highest pitch is at the hub while the
smallest pitch is at the tip. (Caters for speed variation along the propeller length)

THE PROPELLER
The reason for the twist is to
produce uniform lift from the hub to
the tip. As the blade rotates, there is
a difference in the actual speed of
the various portions of the blade.
The tip of the blade travels faster
than that part near the hub,
because the tip travels a greater
distance than the hub in the same
length of time. Changing the angle of
incidence (pitch) from the hub to the
tip to correspond with the speed
produces uniform lift throughout
the length of the blade.
Relationship of travel distance and
speed of various portions of
propeller blade.

IDEAL CARNOT CYCLE (p-V DIAGRAM)

IDEAL CARNOT CYCLE (p-V DIAGRAM)

The Carnot Cycle is one of the
fundamental thermodynamic cycles.
A p-V diagram is used to plot the various
processes in the Carnot Cycle.
The cycle begins with a gas, colored
yellow on the figure, which is confined in a
cylinder, colored blue.
The volume of the cylinder is changed by a
moving red piston, and the pressure is
changed by placing weights on the piston.
We have two heat sources; the red one is
at a nominal 300 degrees, and the purple
one is at 200 degrees.
Initially, the gas is in State 1 at high
temperature, high pressure, and low volume.

The first process performed on the gas is an isothermal expansion.

The 300 degree heat source is brought into contact with the cylinder, and
weight is removed, which lowers the pressure in the gas.
The temperature remains constant, but the volume increases.

IDEAL CARNOT CYCLE (p-V DIAGRAM)

The second process performed on
the gas is an adiabatic expansion.
During an adiabatic process no
heat is transferred to the gas.
Weight is removed, which lowers
the pressure in the gas.
The temperature decreases and the
volume increases as the gas expands
to fill the volume.
During the process from State 2 to
State 3 no heat is transferred.

IDEAL CARNOT CYCLE (p-V DIAGRAM)

The third process performed on the
gas is an isothermal compression.
The 200 degree heat source is
brought into contact with the cylinder,
and weight is added, which raises the
pressure in the gas.
The temperature remains constant,
but the volume decreases.
During the process from State 3 to
State 4 heat is transferred from the
gas to heat source to maintain the
temperature.
We will note the heat transfer by Q2
away from the gas.

IDEAL CARNOT CYCLE (p-V DIAGRAM)

The fourth process performed on
the gas is an adiabatic compression.
Weight is added, which raises the
pressure in the gas.
The temperature increases and the
volume decreases as the gas is
compressed.
During the process from State 4 to
State 1 no heat is transferred.

IDEAL CARNOT CYCLE (p-V DIAGRAM

At the end of the fourth process, the state of
the gas has returned to its original state and
the cycle can be repeated as often as you
wish.
During the cycle, work W has been produced
by the gas, and the amount of work is equal to
the area enclosed by the process curves.
From the first law of thermodynamics, the
amount of work produced is equal to the net
heat transferred during the process: W = Q1 Q2
The Carnot cycle describes the operation of refrigerators, the Otto cycle
describes the operation of internal combustion engines, and the Brayton
cycle describes the operation of gas turbine engines.
P-V and T-s diagrams are often used to visualize the processes in a
thermodynamic cycle and help us better understand the thermodynamics
of engines.

FUNDAMENTALS OF GAS TURBINE

ENGINES

INTRODUCTION

A gas turbine is essentially a heat engine using air as a fluid to produce

thrust.
The working cycle of the gas turbine is similar to that of a piston engine and
both engine cycles have induction, compression, combustion and exhaust
phases.
However a gas turbine is able to deal with much larger amounts of energy
for a given size and weight, and it has the added advantage that the
mechanical motion is continuous and entirely rotational.
In consequence the gas turbine runs more smoothly.
Lecture notes by Wg Cdr B Prakash (Retd.)

29

INTRODUCTION
Although the gas turbine engine differs radically in construction from

the conventional four-stroke, five-event cycle reciprocating engine,

both involve the same basic principle of operation.
In the piston (reciprocating) engine, the functions of intake,
compression, ignition, combustion, and exhaust all take place in the
same cylinder and, therefore, each must completely occupy the
chamber during its respective part of the combustion cycle.
In the gas turbine engine, a separate section is devoted to each
function, and all functions are performed at the same time without
interruption. The gas turbine functions as an open cycle process.

How does a jet engine work ?

The jet engine or, more correctly, the gas turbine is an internal

combustion engine which produces power by the controlled burning of

fuel.
In both the gas turbine and the motor car engine, air is compressed,
fuel is added and the mixture is ignited.
The resulting hot gas expands rapidly and is used to produce the
power.
In the motor car engine, the burning is intermittent and the expanding
gas moves a piston and crank to produce rotary or shaft power which is
transmitted to the road wheels.

Lecture notes by Wg Cdr B Prakash (Retd.)

31

How does a jet engine work ?

In a typical engine:
1.We can think of the engine as being stationary and the cold air moving towards it.
2. A compressor squeezes the air (increases its pressure and temperature). This
slows the air down by about 60 percent.
3.ATF/Kerosene (liquid fuel) is pumped into the engine from a fuel tank in the plane's
wing/body.
4.In the combustion chamber, just behind the compressor, the kerosene mixes with
the compressed air and burns fiercely, giving off hot exhaust gases. The burning
mixture reaches a temperature of around 900C.
5.The exhaust gases rush past a set of turbine blades, spinning them like a windmill.
6.The turbine blades are connected to a long axle that runs the length of the engine.
.The compressor and the fan are also connected to this axle. So, as the turbine
blades spin, they also turn the compressor.
8.The hot exhaust gases exit the engine through a tapering exhaust nozzle.
.The tapering design helps to accelerate the gases to high speeds. The hot
exhaust air leaving the engine at the back is travelling much faster than the cold
air entering it at the frontand that's what powers the plane.
.Military jets often have an after burner that adds fuel into the exhaust jet to
produce extra thrust.
.The backward-moving exhaust gases power the jet forward.
Lecture notes by Wg Cdr B Prakash (Retd.)

32

Layout of the gas turbine

The gas turbine engine is basically a machine designed to accelerate a
stream of gas which is used to produce the reactive thrust necessary to
propel the aircraft.

Lecture notes by Wg Cdr B Prakash (Retd.)

33

Gas Turbine Schematic Diagram

Lecture notes by Wg Cdr B Prakash (Retd.)

34

GAS TURBINE ENGINE WORKING PRINCIPLE

0 to 1 : Free stream. (Air velocity same as that of the aircraft)

1 to 2 : Inlet diffusion Velocity reduces, Pressure increases (Ram pressure
increase as per Bernoullis equation P + V2 +gh =constant).
2 to 3 : Isentropic compression
3 to 4 : Heat addition at constant pressure. (Air and fuel mixed and burned at
constant pressure)
4 to 5 : Isentropic expansion through turbine by which work is developed. Work
just sufficient to run the compressor.
6 to 7 : Heat addition through afterburner if available.
7 to 8 : Isentropic expansion through nozzle, leading to reaction thrust.

Lecture notes by Wg Cdr B Prakash (Retd.)

35

Brayton Cycle- Schematic Diagram

Lecture notes by Wg Cdr B Prakash (Retd.)

36

BRAYTON
CYCLE

Thermodynamics of a jet engine are modeled approximately by a Brayton Cycle.

Ideal Brayton cycle comprise of the following Thermodynamics Processes:
Isentropic Compression Process. (1-2)
Isobaric Heat Addition Process. (2-3)
Isentropic Expansion Process. (3-4)
Isobaric Heat Rejection Process. (4-1)

BRAYTON CYCLE - T-s Diagram

The gas turbine cycle can be represented by a
temperature/entropy (T/S) diagram. (Entropy is
a measure of disorder; the greater the entropy
or degree of disorder in the gas, less work can
be extracted from it.)
Point 1 represents the entry to the compressor,
the air undergoes adiabatic compression along
the line 1-2.
Heat is added to the air in the form of burning
fuel which causes constant pressure heating
along the line 2-3.
Adiabatic expansion through the turbines, line
3-4, extracts energy from the gas stream to
drive the compressor and possibly a propeller,
fan or rotor system.
The remainder of the gas stream is discharged
through the exhaust system to provide thrust,
line 4-1.

Lecture notes by Wg Cdr B Prakash (Retd.)

38

Typical gas flow through a gas turbine

o As the gas turbine engine is reliant upon heat to expand the gases, the higher
the temperature in the combustion phase the greater the expansion of the
gases.
o However, the combustion temperature has to be limited to a level that can be
safely accepted by the materials used in the turbine and exhaust components.
o Figure shows the gas flow through a typical gas turbine and also gives
representative values for temperature, gas velocities and pressures.
Lecture notes by Wg Cdr B Prakash (Retd.)

39

TURBOJET ENGINES SUMMARY

Turbojets are the oldest kind of general-purpose jet engines.

Turbojets are rotary engines that extracts energy from a flow of combustion gas.
They produce thrust by increasing the velocity of the air flowing through the
engine and operate on Newtons third law of motion " For every action there is an
equal and opposite reaction.

Air intake

Air intake aims at bringing large amounts of surrounding air into the engine.
A tube-shaped inlet, like one you would see on an airliner usually of cylindrical
or conical design.
Inlets come in many shapes and sizes depending on the aircraft.

The compressor rotates at very high speed, adding energy to the airflow and
at the same time squeezing it into a smaller space. Compressing the air
increases its pressure and temperature. The compressor is driven by the
turbine.
Compressors used in turbojet engines are mainly classified as:
Axial Flow Compressors.
Centrifugal Compressors.

1. Axial compressors are rotating, airfoil

based compressors in which the
working fluid principally flows parallel
to the axis of rotation.
2. Axial compressors consist of a shaft
that drives a central drum which has a
number of annular airfoil rows
attached.
3.These rotate between a similar number
of stationary airfoil rows attached to a
stationary tubular casing.
4. A pair of rotating and stationary airfoils
is called a stage.
5.The cross-sectional area between rotor
drum and casing is reduced in the flow
direction to maintain axial velocity as
the fluid is compressed.

1. Centrifugal compressors are

rotating, airfoil based
compressors in which the
working fluid principally flows
perpendicular to the axis of
rotation.
2. Centrifugal compressors consist
of a shaft that drives a impeller
which has a number of curved
blades.
3. The impeller rotates in a casing
which is designed to convert
the kinetic energy of the fluid
into pressure energy before
leaving the compressor.

1. In a turbojet the air and fuel

mixture passes unconfined
through the combustion
chamber.
2. As the mixture burns its
temperature increases
dramatically.
3. The combustion chamber is
usually in the form of cans,
which comprise the fuel
injector and flame holder.

1. Hot gases leaving the combustor are

allowed to expand through the
turbine. Turbines are usually made up
of high temperature metals such as
inconel / Ni based alloys.
2. The turbine's rotational energy is
used
primarily
to
drive
the
compressor and other accessories,
like fuel, oil, and hydraulic pumps.
3. In a turbojet almost 60% of all the
power generated by burning fuel is
used by the compressor to compress
the air for the engine.

1. After the turbine, the gases are allowed to expand through the exhaust

nozzle to atmospheric pressure, producing a high velocity jet in the

exhaust plume. This results in thrust production as per Newtons Third
Law.
2. In a convergent nozzle, the ducting narrows progressively to a throat.

1. An afterburner or "reheat jet-pipe" is a device added to the rear of

the jet engine.
2. It provides a means of spraying fuel directly into the hot exhaust,
where it ignites and boosts available thrust significantly; a
drawback is its very high fuel consumption rate.

The thrust reverser is, essentially, a pair of clamshell doors mounted

at the rear of the engine which, when deployed, divert thrust normal
to the jet engine flow to help slow an aircraft upon landing.
They are often used in conjunction with spoilers.

Merits of Turbojet Engines:

Very high power-to-weight ratio.
More compact than most reciprocating
engines of the same power rating.
Fewer moving parts than reciprocating
engines.
Low operating pressures.
High operation speeds.
Low lubricating oil cost and consumption.
Demerits of Turbojet Engines:
High cost
Longer startup than reciprocating engines
Less responsive to changes in power
demand compared to reciprocating
engines.

7 CYLINDER BMW 801 AIRCRAFT ENGINE

Gas turbine : Thrust Equation

The concept of momentum and pressure thrust give rise to the full thrust

equation:
Thrust (N) = Momentum thrust + Pressure thrust
= me x Ve - ma x Vo + Ae x (Pe - Po) - Ai x (Pl - Po)
Where
ma = Mass flow of air in kg/s
me = Mass Flow of combustion products in kg/s = m a + mf (mass flow of fuel

in kg/s)
Ve = Final Velocity of Gas Stream in m/s
Vo = Initial Velocity of Gas Stream in m/s
Ae = Area of Propelling Nozzle in m
Ai =Area of Intake in m
Pe = Exit Pressure from Propelling Nozzle in Pa
Po = Atmospheric Pressure in Pa
Pl = Engine Inlet Pressure in Pa
Lecture notes by Wg Cdr B Prakash (Retd.)

52

Calculation of Thrust

To illustrate the calculation of thrust, using the following data : Propelling Nozzle

Outlet: Area (Ae) = 0.2150 m, Pressure (Pe) = 143.325 kPa ,Pressure (P0) =
101.325 kPa (ISA), Mass Flow (ma) = 70 kg/s, Velocity (Ve) = 590 m/s
Thrust (kN) = (70 x 590 + 0.215 x (143325 - 101325))/1000 = 50.33 kN

By fitting an afterburner to the engine, the thrust can be greatly increased.

The parameters of the afterburning nozzle are as follows: Afterburner Propelling

Nozzle Outlet: Area (Ae) = 0.2900m, Pressure (Pe) = 136.325 kPa, Pressure
( Po) = 101.325 kPa, Mass Flow (ma) = 70 kg/s, Velocity (Ve) = 740 m/s,
Thrust = (70 x 740 + 0.29 x (136325 - 101325) )/1000 = 61.950 kN
It can be seen that the increase in thrust is 11.62 kN or 23%. This increase is

small compared to modern by-pass engines with afterburning which have thrust
increases in the order of 80%. However, the use of this increased thrust results
in a disproportionately high increase in fuel consumption.
Lecture notes by Wg Cdr B Prakash (Retd.)

53

Turbojet
The turbojet, the simplest and earliest type of gas turbine, is used

principally in high-speed aircraft where its relatively small frontal area

and high jet velocity are advantageous.
The turbine extracts only sufficient energy from the gas stream to
drive the compressor, leaving the remaining energy to provide the
thrust.

Lecture notes by Wg Cdr B Prakash (Retd.)

54

Rolls-Royce/Snecma Olympus

Lecture notes by Wg Cdr B Prakash (Retd.)

55

Rolls-Royce RB183 Mk
555

Lecture notes by Wg Cdr B Prakash (Retd.)

56

Turbofan
o The turbofan is the most common type of gas turbine used for aircraft

propulsion today.
o Part of the air entering the engine is compressed fully and passed into
the combustion chamber, while the remainder, compressed to a lesser
extent, bypasses the combustion section, to provide cold thrust.
o This bypass flow rejoins the hot flow downstream of the turbine.

Examples of the turbofan are the RB211 in the Boeing 747, the 535 in the
Boeing 757, the ADOUR in the Jaguar and Hawk, and the RB199 in the Tornado.
Lecture notes by Wg Cdr B Prakash (Retd.)

57

Rolls-Royce Trent 800

Lecture notes by Wg Cdr B Prakash (Retd.)

58

Low-bypass Turbofan
Description
One- or two-stage fan added in front bypasses a proportion of the air through
a bypass chamber surrounding the core. This is the engine of high-speed
military aircraft, some smaller private jets, and older civilian airliners such as
the Boeing 707, the McDonnell Douglas DC-8, and their derivatives
Advantages
As with the turbojet, the design is aerodynamic, with only a modest increase
in diameter over the turbojet required to accommodate the bypass fan and
chamber.
It is capable of supersonic speeds with minimal thrust drop-off at high
speeds and altitudes yet still more efficient than the turbojet at subsonic
operation
Disadvantages
Noisier and less efficient than high-bypass turbofan, with less static (Mach 0)
thrust.
Added complexity to accommodate dual shaft designs.

Lecture notes by Wg Cdr B Prakash (Retd.)

59

HF 20 Honda Low Bypass Turbofan Engine

High-bypass Turbofan
Description
First stage compressor drastically enlarged to provide bypass airflow around engine core,
and it provides significant amounts of thrust.
Compared to the low-bypass turbofan and no-bypass turbojet, the high-bypass turbofan
works on the principle of moving a great deal of air somewhat faster, rather than a small
amount extremely fast.
Most common form of jet engine in civilian use today- used in airliners like the Boeing
747, most 737s and all Airbus aircraft
Advantages
Quieter due to greater mass flow and lower total exhaust speed, more efficient for a
useful range of subsonic airspeeds for same reason, cooler exhaust temperature.
Less noisy and exhibit much better efficiency than low bypass turbofans
Disadvantages
Greater complexity (additional ducting, usually multiple shafts) and the need to contain
heavy blades. Fan diameter can be extremely large, especially in high bypass turbofans
such as the GE90.
More subject to FOD and ice damage.
Top speed is limited due to the potential for shockwaves to damage engine.

Lecture notes by Wg Cdr B Prakash (Retd.)

61

High Bypass Turbojet Engine

High Bypass Turbojet Engine

Propfan / Unducted Fan

Description
Turbojet engine that also drives one or more
propellers. Similar to a turbofan without the fan cowling
Advantages
Higher fuel efficiency, potentially less noisy than
turbofans, could lead to higher-speed commercial
aircraft, popular in the 1980s during fuel shortages
Disadvantages
Development of propfan engines has been very
limited, typically noisier than turbofans, complexity

Lecture notes by Wg Cdr B Prakash (Retd.)

64

Propfan

Unducted Fan

Turbofan Thrust

Lecture notes by Wg Cdr B Prakash (Retd.)

67

Turboprop
o The turboprop is a turbojet with an additional turbine which uses the energy

remaining in the gas stream, after sufficient has been absorbed to drive the
compressor, to drive a propeller.
o The additional turbine, called the power turbine, drives the propeller through a
shaft and a reduction gear. A small amount of residual thrust remains in the
exhaust gases during normal operation. The turboprop is a very efficient
powerplant for relatively low-speed, low-altitude aircraft, (eg, 250 kmph/9000 m).

Examples of the turboprop are the DART in the British Aerospace 748 and the
Fokker F27, and the TYNE in the Transall C-160 and Dassault-Breguet Atlantic.
Turboprop power is measured in total equivalent horsepower (tehp) or kilowatts
(kW), ie: the shaft horsepower plus the residual thrust.
Lecture notes by Wg Cdr B Prakash (Retd.)

68

Turboprop

Lecture notes by Wg Cdr B Prakash (Retd.)

69

Turboshaft
o The turboshaft is effectively a turboprop without a propeller, the power turbine in

this case being coupled to a reduction gearbox or directly to an output shaft.

o In the same way as the turboprop, the power turbine absorbs as much of the
remaining gas energy as possible and the residual thrust is very low.
o Turboshaft power is normally measured in shaft horsepower (shp) or kilowatts
(kW).

The most common application of the turboshaft is the helicopter, in which the
engine drives both the main and tail rotors.
Turboshafts are also widely used for industrial and marine installations,
including power and pumping stations, hovercraft and ships.
Examples of the turboshaft are the GEM in the Westland Lynx and the
GNOME in the Westland Sea King helicopters.
Lecture notes by Wg Cdr B Prakash (Retd.)

70

Turboshaft Engines

Ramjet
A ramjet is properly shaped duct with no compressor or turbine. It is

used for high speed propulsion and missiles.

Compression is achieved by decelerating the high speed incoming
air in the diffuser.
The aircraft must already be in flight at a high speed. Ramjet is
typically used in aircraft flying above Mach 1.

Lecture notes by Wg Cdr B Prakash (Retd.)

72

Ramjet Engine

Ramjet
Description
Intake air is compressed entirely by speed of oncoming air and
duct shape (divergent), and then it goes through a burner section
where it is heated and then passes through a propelling nozzle
Advantages
Very few moving parts, Mach 0.8 to Mach 5+, efficient at high
speed (> Mach 2.0 or so), lightest of all air-breathing jets (thrust /
weight ratio up to 30 at optimum speed), cooling much easier than
turbojets as there are no turbine blades to cool
Disadvantages
Must have a high initial speed to function, inefficient at slow speeds
due to poor compression ratio, difficult to arrange shaft power for
accessories, usually limited to a small range of speeds, intake flow
must be slowed to subsonic speeds, noisy, fairly difficult to test,
difficult to maintain combustion.
Lecture notes by Wg Cdr B Prakash (Retd.)

74

Pulsejet

Description
Air is compressed and combusted intermittently instead of
continuously. Some designs use valves
Advantages
Very simple design, commonly used on model aircraft
Disadvantages
Noisy, inefficient (low compression ratio), works poorly on a large
scale, valves on valved designs wear out quickly.

Lecture notes by Wg Cdr B Prakash (Retd.)

75

Pulsejet

Lecture notes by Wg Cdr B Prakash (Retd.)

76

Scramjet

As the velocity increases the total temperature of the gas stream rises
above the dissociation temperature of the combustion products.
This prevents efficient burning if the gas stream is diffused to subsonic
speeds. To solve this, fuels with high propagation velocities such as
hydrogen are used while diffusing the intake air to supersonic speeds
without having a large rise in temperature of the gas stream.
The challenge is one of obtaining stable flames fronts.
Lecture notes by Wg Cdr B Prakash (Retd.)

77

Scramjet
Description
Similar to a ramjet without a diffuser; airflow through the
entire engine remains supersonic
Advantages
Few mechanical parts, can operate at very high Mach
numbers (Mach 8 to 15) with good efficiencies
Disadvantages
Still in development stages, must have a very high initial
speed to function (Mach >6), cooling difficulties, very poor
thrust / weight ratio (~2), extreme aerodynamic complexity,
airframe difficulties, testing difficulties / highly expensive

Lecture notes by Wg Cdr B Prakash (Retd.)

78

Scramjet Engine

ROCKET

Description
Carries all propellants and oxidants on-board,
emits jet for propulsion

Advantages
Very few moving parts,
Mach 0 to Mach 25+,
efficient at very high speed (> Mach 10.0 or so),
thrust / weight ratio over 100,
no complex air inlet,
high compression ratio,
very high speed (hypersonic) exhaust,
good cost / thrust ratio,
easy to test,
works in a vacuum-indeed works best exoatmospheric which is kinder on vehicle
structure at high speed,
fairly small surface area to keep cool,
no turbine in hot exhaust stream

Disadvantages
Needs lots of propellant- very low specific
impulse typically 100-450 seconds.
Extreme thermal stresses of combustion
chamber can make reuse harder.
Typically requires carrying oxidizer on-board
which increases risks.
Extraordinarily noisy
Lecture notes by Wg Cdr B Prakash (Retd.)

80

Choice of Aircraft Powerplant

The factors which affect the choice of powerplant for a particular aircraft

include: a. Power output; b. Efficiency; c. Power/ weight and power/volume

ratios; d. Cost; e. Reliability; f. Maintainability; g. Noise and pollution.
For low speed application, propeller engines are often chosen because of
their overall high efficiency.
For higher speeds, the propeller is replaced by the turbofan or turbojet.
Piston engines are used in small aircraft because of their advantages of
efficiency and cost over the small gas turbine.
For larger aircraft, turboprop engines are preferred as they have good
power/weight ratios and are easily maintained.
For air transport application, where fuel efficiency is extremely important,
high by-pass ratio turbofans are being used by the majority of large aircraft,
with lower by-pass ratio turbofans and turboprops being used in the smaller
aircraft.
Modern combat aircraft use low by-pass afterburning turbofans, which give
a higher efficiency at subsonic speed and provide a greater thrust
augmentation (>80%) in afterburning mode.