Statistical Treatment of Data

Significant Figures : number of digits

know with certainty + the first in doubt.
Rounding off: use the same number of
significant figures.
Addition and subtraction: 13.4+
1478.224 = 1491.624 ~ 1491.6
Multiplication and division:
31x350.1=10,853.1~11,000

Statistical Treatment of Data

Kind of Errors:
Systematic: instrument or the measuring
technique.
Random: judgement of the observer,
fluctuations in conditions (temp., voltage,
pressure, etc.)

Statistical Treatment of Data

Absolute Error: E xi xtrue
xi xtrue
Relative Error: E
100%
xtrue

Statistical Treatment of Data

Mean, arithmetic mean, and average
are synonyms.
N

xi
i 1

Median: is the middle result when

replicate data are arranged in order of
size.

Statistical Treatment of Data

Accuracy: indicates the closeness of the
measurement to its true value or
accepted value. It is expressed by the
error.
Precision: describes the reproducibility
of measurements. That is: the closeness
of results that have been obtained in
exactly the same way.

Statistical Treatment of Data

Low accuracy, low precision

Low accuracy, high precision

High accuracy, low precision

High accuracy, high precision

Statistical Treatment of Data

Distribution of Experimental Data
Precision:
Describes the reproducibility of
measurements.
It can be represented by the deviation
from the mean. That is:
d i xi x

Distribution of Experimental Data

Precision: Describes the reproducibility of
the measurements.
It can be represented by:
The deviation from the mean. d i xi x
xi x

Average Deviation. d
N

x
N

Standard Deviation s

i 1

N 1

Distribution of Experimental Data

Standard Error of the Mean

s
sm
N
Provides limits within which there is a
certain probability of finding the true
value.

Distribution of Experimental Data

The t-Distribution
For small sample size (N<30) a correction
is needed.
The Student Distribution is similar to the
normal (Gaussian) distribution but is
spread out more.

Distribution of Experimental Data

Biasing in the data collection or systematic

error will not be detected by this type of
statistical analysis.
This type of statistical analysis only
concerns itself with precision of values,
NOT the accuracy.

Propagation of Error
Uncertainty Analysis

p 100 KPa 1 KPa

UNCERTAINTY

When the plus or minus notation is used to

designate the uncertainty, the person making
this designation is stating the degree of
accuracy with which he or she believes the
measurement was made.

Propagation of Error
Uncertainty Analysis
1. Suppose a set of measurements is made and
the uncertainty in each measurement
assessed with the same probability.
2. These measurements are used to calculate
some desired result of the experiments.
What is the uncertainty in the calculated result?

Propagation of Error
Uncertainty Analysis

R R x1 , x2 ,, xn
wR is the uncertainty in the result.
w1 , w2 ,, wn are the uncertainties in the
independent variables.

2 12

R
R
R
wR
w1
w2
wn
x2
xn
x1
2

Correlations and Correlation

Coefficient
Given data:

xi , yi

Linear Regression using least squares

analysis:
attempts to minimize the sum of the vertical
2
N
distances from the points
to the straight
line,

min
S

mx

i
i
that is:
i 1
in particular,

N xi yi xi yi
m
2
2
N xi xi

Correlations and Correlation

Coefficient
Given data:

xi , yi

But, we might equally well have written instead

x my b
Then,

N xi yi xi yi
m
2
2
N yi yi

Correlations and Correlation

Coefficient
Given data:

xi , yi

Correlation Coefficient=

r 1

r 0

r m m

Perfect correlation
No correlation