Chapter 9 - 1.0

unit two
Plant Structure,
Chemistry, Growth,
Development, Genetics,
Biodiversity, and Processes
6 Structure of Higher Plants
7 Plant Growth & Development
8 Plant Chemistry & Metabolism
9 Genetics & Propagation
10 Cultivated Plants:
Naming, Classifying, Origin,
Improvement & Germplasm
Diversity and Preservation
11 Photosynthesis & Respiration
12 Water Relations
13 Mineral Nutrition
Chapter 9 - Genetics and Propogation
Quiz 2 Out of 15 (3 pts a question)

1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
There are 5 plant hormones, list 2.

Ribose, deoxyribose, and glucose are examples of what class of plant metabolites?
Phospholipids arrange in a _______ _________ to form plant cell membranes.
A plant has several meristematic regions, list 2.
How does light quality/quantity change as sunlight filters through a forest canopy to the forest floor?
Bonus (2 pt): What is the name of NC States football stadium?
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Practical Horticulture 5th edition

By Margaret J. McMahon, Anton M. Kofranek and Vincent E. Rubatsky
2011, 2007, 2002, 1988 Pearson Education, Inc.

Pearson Prentice Hall - Upper Saddle River, NJ 07458
KEY LEARNING CONCEPTS

After reading this chapter, you should be able to:
Explain how the basic concepts of genetics relate to the production and utilization of plants.
Discuss how genetic engineering is used to introduce genetic traits into plants from unrelated
or distantly related organisms.
Describe the common methods of plant breeding and sexual and asexual propagation.
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Basic Genetic Concepts in Plant Science

Pants we cultivate all originated from wild plants, but
most appear very different from their wild relatives.
Differences arise through recombination of genes
& redistribution of heritable traits.
Brassica oleracea (Cabbage)

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Chromosomes
Plants are made of mostly living cells
Not the xylem in woody perennials
A living cell consists of

Cell wall structure + containment
Cytoplasm - nucleus is suspended.
Chromosomes Strands of DNA that carry most genetic information
Stored in nucleus
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Chromosomes
DNA: large molecule in form
of a double helix
Selfreplication
DNA is a polymer: nucleotides
Adenine, guanine, cytosine
are in both DNA & RNA
RNA replaces DNAs
thymine with uracil
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Chromosomes
Backbone of DNA is composed of sugar
residues (S) linked by phosphates (P) on each
side.
Each sugar also attached to a nucleotide
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Chromosomes
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Nucleotides connect sugar residues via

hydrogen bonds.
Adenine, thymine (Purines)
Guanine, cytosine (Pyrimidines)
Thymine replaced with uracil in RNA
Nucleotide bond to sugar is stronger than bond

to complementary nucleotide
Allows for un-zipping of double helix
(enzyme promoted)


Chromosomes
DNA self-perpetuating genetic code.
Ribonucleic acid (RNA) actually controls cell growth.
DNA is double-strandedRNA is a single strand.
RNA sugars have 1 more oxygen atom than DNA sugars.
RNA has uracil (U) as a base in place of thymine (T).
Ribose
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Deoxyribose
Chromosomes
The DNA molecule acts as a template for RNA

Proteins are constructed from amino acids using RNA
as a template
Directed, originally, by DNA
Chromosomes are long, threadlike structures of

deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) plus associated
ribonucleic acids (RNA) & proteins.
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Chromosomes
Number of chromosomes is conserved within a species
Usually diploid (2n), chromosome number.
Gamete cells the number is reduced by half and is termed the haploid, or 1n, chromosome number.
Will combine with other gamete to make 2n
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Chromosomes
Number and appearance of chromosomes vary
considerably between species.
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Chromosomes
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During cell division:

Chromosomes unravel
DNA separates into single strands
(weak h-bonds)
Once new strand is formed, like attracts

like.
Complimentary bases
A=T
C=G
Matches purine with pyrimidine


Homologous Chromosomes
Mitosis Cell division in
vegetative tissue
Chromosomes split
longitudinally, then
replicate
One of each pair goes to
each daughter cell.
Each daughter cell has a
genotype identical to the
mother
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Meiosis formation of
reproductive cells.
Pollen grains and
embryo sac (contains
egg)
1n gametes unite during

fertilization to form 2n
zygote

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Maternal and paternal

chromosomes divide randomly
during meiosis
This is called genetic

segregation.

Meiosis and Fertilization

During angiosperm fertilization: one male gamete (1n) unites
with the two polar nuclei (1n each) to form endosperm
Endosperm = food storage tissue for developing embryo.
Endosperm = 3n
Seed coat developed by mitosis from the female parent

cover both the endosperm and the embryo.
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Gymnosperm vs. Angiosperm
Same process, different
structures
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Homologous chromosomes pairs of
chromosomes within a single cell (2n diploid).
Must have genes affecting same traits in same positions.
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Alleles genes that occupy the same position on

homologous chromosomes and affect the same
trait.
Alleles can be the same/different & dominant/recessive.
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Genes
Genes may act alone, or with an accomplice
One gene (or several interacting genes) may determine plant height, leaf shape, flower color, or fruit size.
Any individual gene may have a large effect or a small effect.
Genes on the same chromosome are linkedthey move from one cell generation to the next as a unit.
Linkage is not perfect, as sometimes during meiosis, chromosomes break and exchange parts. (crossing over)
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A dominant gene is one that causes a certain
characteristic to be expressed whether the plant
is homozygous or heterozygous.
A recessive gene causes the character it controls

to be expressed only if both alleles are recessive.
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Random segregation during gamete formation makes new
combinations for a monohybrid & dihybrid crosses.
Monohybrid cross : one gene, one
characteristic
In garden peas, tallness (D) is
dominant over dwarfness (d).
A tall pea plant is homozygous
(DD)
or heterozygous (Dd)
Three genotypes occur in the second
generation (F2).
(DD, Dd, dd)
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Inheritance in a dihybrid cross of the peach (Prunus persica).
Fuzzy skin (G) of a peach is dominant
over the glabrous (smooth) skin
of the nectarine (g).
White flesh color (Y) is dominant
over yellow flesh color (y).
The phenotype of the F1 generation
is different from either parent
Segregation in the F2 generation produces
nine genotypes & four phenotypes.
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Genes
A sequence of triplet organic bases along DNA make up a gene.
Three nucleotides code for an amino acid
Amino acids make up proteins
Proteins serve many functions within the cell
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Mutations
A few errors slip through during cell division.
Mutations may result in changes in plant characteristics.
Most mutations dont matter (deleterious).

Some are not can be good, or bad.
Mutations can be induced with chemicals & by

ionizing radiation.
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Polyploidy
Polyploidy individual plants have more than two sets of
homologous chromosomes in their somatic (vegetative) cells.
Duplication or combination
Many of the cultivated crop species

evolved in nature as polyploids.
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Cytoplasmic Inheritance
Mitochondria and chloroplast DNA control a few
traits
Contributed only by the female parent useful in
determining hereditary relationships among organisms.
Chloroplast BASF Company

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Genotype and Phenotype

Genotype genetic makeup of the plant
GCC-CGT-TGT-CTT-CCC-TCA
Alanine, Arginine, Cysteine, Leucine, Proline, Serine
Phenotype outward appearance, behavior, and chemical and physical

properties.
Interaction of genes and environment
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Breeding
Breeding: selecting a female & male parent with unique desirable
traits & crossing them to produce offspring with both sets of desirable
traits.
DNA analysis speeds up breeding
Early confirmation of traits
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Breeding
In the breeding process, pollen is collected from the
male plant and then used to fertilize the female plant
Figure 9-5 Left: Removing pollen from the male parent. Right: Applying pollen to the female plant.
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Breeding
Unintentional fertilization makes breeding difficult
The female must be kept from receiving unwanted pollen.
Pollen producing structures must be removed in

monoecious self-fertile plants
Male-sterile plants eliminates the problem
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Breeding
Single gene traits are the easiest to breed for.
It is possible to develop a homozygous line from a
single, self-pollinating plant.
When a population becomes completely or nearly
homozygous, reduced vigor can occur.
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Breeding
Production hybrid seeds allows for very uniform offspring
F1 generation from a cross of two differentyet homozygousparents.
Almost all corn is now produced from hybrid seed

Seed from hybrid crop cannot be saved and used to produce future crops.
F2 generation segregates into several different genotypes and phenotypes
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Biotechnology
Biotechnology -- developing organisms by molecular biology &
genetics, using advanced genetic engineering techniques.
Enhanced traits:
dietary attributes, resistance to insects, herbicides, certain environmental
stresses, etc.
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Biotechnology
Genetic engineering -- Introducing a new gene into a species
A genetically engineered plant is a transgenic plant.
Genetically modified organism (GMO) vs. genetically engineered plants,

Genetically engineered is a more accurate term.
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Biotechnology
A GMO is created during sexual reproduction.
Not all genetically engineered plants are the result

of gene transfer sometimes endogenous genes
alter.
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Biotechnology
Genetic engineering starts with identification of a gene trait
relationship.
The gene is removed from cells of the host organism.
Then introduced into nucleus of target cells
Typically accompanied by a marker gene
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Biotechnology
Steps of Genetic Engineering
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Biotechnology
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Biotechnology
Reproduction
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Biotechnology
Technology isnt there to fabricate genes
A promoter is often attached to turn the gene on

Can be constant or only under specific conditions
Genes often respond differently in different environments
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Propagation of Plants
Propagation increasing plant numbers
Plants are propagated by

sexual (seed) or asexual
(vegetative) methods.
Depending on the species,
some techniques work better
than others.
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Successful propagation transmits desirable
characteristics between the original and the progeny.
Propagation while maintaining specific characteristics
often drives commercial propagation methods.
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If the plant group reproduces true by seedswith
no characteristics changedthe cultivar is a line.
A line is homozygous and, if self-pollinated, seed
propagation yields progeny like the original plant.
Many crops are lines.
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Propagation
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Inbred lines,
used to produce
hybrid cultivars.
Hybrids i.e.
hybrid corn


Control of seed source is essential.
Cultivars must be separated to prevent

contamination
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Seed certification programs to protect and maintain the
genetic quality of cultivars.
Government agencies set the standards for seed quality
and characteristics.
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Seed Production
U.S. seed certification programs recognize four
classes of seeds in agronomic crops:
Breeder seedproduced in small amounts, under the
control of the plant breeder, to produce foundation seed.
Foundation seedmultiplied from breeder seed, available
in limited amounts, planted to produce registered seed.
Controlled by public/private foundation seed stock organizations.
Registered seedseed source for growers of certified

seed, under the control of the registered seed producers.
The progeny of either breeder or foundation seed.
Certified seedis of known genetic identity & purity,

available in large quantities, sold to farmers for general
crop production.
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Seed Formation
A seed has three essential parts:
The embryo, which develops into the new plant.
Food storage material -- endosperm.
Seed coverings seed coat.
Parts of the seed as

they develop from the
parts of the flower:
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Seed Storage and Viability Testing

For a seed to germinate, the embryo must be alive.
Some are very short-lived, viable only a few days/months.
Others generally remains alive for a great many years.
Length of viability can depend on storage

conditions.
Testing viability:
In a cut test, seeds are cut in half to see if there is an embryo inside
Float they float, theyre not live seed
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The germination test useful without dormancy
Viability calculated as the percentage of seedlings
developing from numbers planted.
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Tetrazolium Test2,3,5-triphenyl tetrazolium
chloride, colorless in water, turns to a red-colored
chemical when it contacts living, respiring tissue.
Seeds are usually soaked, then cut lengthwise to expose
the embryo and placed in a tetrazolium solution.
If the embryo turns red, the seeds are viable.
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Seed Dormancy
Dormancy is a survival mechanism for some species
Causes for dormancy can persist and have several

requirements
Dormancy can be structural or physiological
conditions in seed coverings, the embryo, or both.
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Seed Dormancy
Seed Coat DormancySeed coats or other tissues
may be impermeable to water & gases which cannot
penetrate to the embryo and initiate germination.
Artificial methods of softening seed coats:
Scarificationthe surface of the seed is mechanically
scratched or ruptured.
Heat treatmentexposure to heat, usually boiling water,
sufficiently disrupts the seed coat to permit passage of
water and gases.
Acid scarificationsoaking seeds in concentrated sulfuric
acid etches their coats enough for germination.
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Seed Dormancy
Embryo Dormancyphysiological conditions or
germination blocks in the embryo prevent growth,
though environmental conditions are favorable.
Dormant seeds will germinate in spring if they are allowed
to winter outdoors while being kept moist.
From this arose the practice known as stratification.
Critical conditions in seed stratification are:

Chilling temperatures; Moisture ; Adequate oxygen; Time.
There is evidence stratification increases growthpromoting hormones (gibberellins & cytokinins).

Growth-inhibiting hormones (abscisic acid) decrease.
The term after-ripening is often used to describe the

changes in the mature seed that allow germination.
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Seed Dormancy
Seeds of some species have both seed coat and
embryo dormancyDouble Dormancy.
To obtain germination, seeds should be first treated to
soften the seed coats, and given cold stratification.
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Seed Germination
Three phases of seed germination:
Imbibition of water by seedscells get turgid, coverings
soften, rupture & permit passage of oxygen & CO 2.
Activation of hormones/enzymesafter water is
absorbed, various enzyme systems are activated or
synthesized as a result of stimulation by hormones.
Food materials are translocated to root/shoot growing points.
Embryo growth/developmentthe root-shoot axis

(plumule, epicotyl, hypocotyl, and radicle) grows by cell
division and enlargement.
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Seed Germination
The seed coats rupture and photosynthetic tissue
emerges into the light to carry on photosynthesis.
The embryonic root (radicle) emerges and grows into

moist soil to supply the newly developed leafy tissues
with water for growth and transpiration.
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Seed Germination
Environmental Factors Influencing Germination:
Moistureessential to initiate physiological & biochemical
processes.
Temperatureinfluence percentage and rate of seed
germination
Aerationrespiration rates are high in germinating seeds.
Low O2 limits germination
Lightessential for some kinds of seeds, such as
lettuce, celery, most grasses & many herbaceous
garden flowers.
Freedom from pathogenic organismsseedlings can
after germination from damping off, caused by fungi.
Freedom from toxic amounts of salts.
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unit two

Chapter 9 - Genetics and Propogation

Quiz 2 Out of 15 (3 pts a question)

There are 5 plant hormones, list 2.

Bonus (2 pt): What is the name of NC States football stadium?

Practical Horticulture 5th edition

2011, 2007, 2002, 1988 Pearson Education, Inc.

Chapter 9 - Genetics and Propogation

KEY LEARNING CONCEPTS

Practical Horticulture 5th edition

2011, 2007, 2002, 1988 Pearson Education, Inc.

Chapter 9 - Genetics and Propogation

Basic Genetic Concepts in Plant Science

Brassica oleracea (Cabbage)

Practical Horticulture 5th edition

2011, 2007, 2002, 1988 Pearson Education, Inc.

Chapter 9 - Genetics and Propogation

A living cell consists of

Practical Horticulture 5th edition

2011, 2007, 2002, 1988 Pearson Education, Inc.

Chapter 9 - Genetics and Propogation

Practical Horticulture 5th edition

2011, 2007, 2002, 1988 Pearson Education, Inc.

Chapter 9 - Genetics and Propogation

Practical Horticulture 5th edition

2011, 2007, 2002, 1988 Pearson Education, Inc.

Chapter 9 - Genetics and Propogation

Nucleotides connect sugar residues via

Nucleotide bond to sugar is stronger than bond

Practical Horticulture 5th edition

2011, 2007, 2002, 1988 Pearson Education, Inc.

Chapter 9 - Genetics and Propogation

Practical Horticulture 5th edition

Chapter 9 - Genetics and Propogation

The DNA molecule acts as a template for RNA

Chromosomes are long, threadlike structures of

Practical Horticulture 5th edition

2011, 2007, 2002, 1988 Pearson Education, Inc.

Chapter 9 - Genetics and Propogation

Practical Horticulture 5th edition

2011, 2007, 2002, 1988 Pearson Education, Inc.

Chapter 9 - Genetics and Propogation

Practical Horticulture 5th edition

2011, 2007, 2002, 1988 Pearson Education, Inc.

Chapter 9 - Genetics and Propogation

During cell division:

Once new strand is formed, like attracts

Practical Horticulture 5th edition

2011, 2007, 2002, 1988 Pearson Education, Inc.

Chapter 9 - Genetics and Propogation

Practical Horticulture 5th edition

2011, 2007, 2002, 1988 Pearson Education, Inc.

Chapter 9 - Genetics and Propogation

Practical Horticulture 5th edition

1n gametes unite during

2011, 2007, 2002, 1988 Pearson Education, Inc.

Chapter 9 - Genetics and Propogation

Practical Horticulture 5th edition

Maternal and paternal

This is called genetic

2011, 2007, 2002, 1988 Pearson Education, Inc.

Chapter 9 - Genetics and Propogation

Meiosis and Fertilization