UNIT 3

GASEOUS FUELS
Hydrogen - Properties - Use in CI Engines - Use in
SI Engines - Storage methods - Safety precautions.
Producer
gas and biogas - Raw materials - Gasification Properties - Cleaning up the gas - Use in SI and CI
engines,
LPG
& Natural gas - Properties - Use in SI and CI
Engines.

Hydrogen

HYDROGEN - Cleanest of the Clean Fuels

. I believe that water will one day

be employed as fuel, that hydrogen
and oxygen which constitute it, used
singly or together will furnish an
inexhaustible source of heat and light
of an intensity of which coal is not
capablewater will be coal of the
future
JULES VERNE - Mysterious Island

Properties of some gaseous

fuel
Property
LPG
Natural gas Hydrogen Biogas
Producer
gas
Composition

C3H8-62%
C4H10-37%
C2H6-1.08%

CH4-86.4-90%
H2
C2H6-3.0-6.0%
C3H8-0.35-2.0%

CH4-60-70%
CO2-30-40%
CO-0.18%
H2-0.18%

LCV at
46000
o
1atm&15 c
(kJ/kg)
Density at 1
2.24
o
3
atm&15 c(kg/m )

50000

120000

5000
kJ/m3

CO-24.3%
H2-22.6%
CH4-2.2%
CO2-9.3%
N2-41.28%
3500-6000
kJ/m3

0.79

0.09

1.1

1.05

Flame speed
(cm/s)

38.25

34

265-325

25

20-30

Stoichiometric
A/F

15.5

17.3

34.3

0.95-1.2

Flammability
limits (vol.% in
air)
Octane number

2.15-9.6

5.3-15

4-75

7.5-14

7-21.6

103-105

130

130

120

100-105

Auto-ignition
493-549
temperature (C) (propane)

730

585

700

625

LHV of stoich
mixture kJ/m3

2900 kJ/kg

3400 kJ/kg

2800

2500

3000 kJ/kg

Hydrogen gas properties

The properties that contribute to
Hydrogens use as a combustible fuel are :
Wide range of flammability
Low ignition energy
Small quenching distance
High auto ignition temperature
High flame speed at stoichiometric ratios
High diffusivity
Very low density

Wide Range of Flammability

Has a wide flammability range (4 ~ 75 % in Vol.) in
comparison with all other fuels.

Lean mixture
Greater fuel economy
Complete combustion reaction.
Final combustion temperature is lower leading to
reduction in the amount of pollutants such as NOx.
Affects power output due to volumetric heating
value of the air/fuel mixture.

Low Ignition Energy

Has very low ignition energy (0.02 MJ)
which ensures prompt ignition.
Amount of energy needed to ignite
hydrogen is less than that required for
gasoline.
Disadvantage of the low ignition energy is
that hot gases and hot spots on the cylinder
can serve as sources of ignition, creating
problems
of
premature
ignition
and
flashback.

Smaller Quenching Distance

Has a small quenching distance (0.64mm),
smaller than gasoline (2mm).
Hydrogen flames travel closer to the
cylinder wall than other fuels before they
extinguish.
This can also increase the tendency for
backfire since the flame from a hydrogen-air
mixture more readily passes a nearly closed
intake valve, than a hydrocarbon-air flame.

High Auto ignition Temperature

Has
a
relatively
temperature (858K).

high

auto

ignition

This decides what compression ratio we can

use, since the temperature rise during
compression is related to compression ratio.
High auto ignition temperature allows larger
compression ratios to be used in a hydrogen
engine than in a hydrocarbon engine which
leads to better thermal efficiency.

High Flame Speed

Has high flame speed (278 cm /sec) at
stoichiometric ratios.
Under these conditions, the hydrogen flame
speed is higher (faster) than that of gasoline.
This means that hydrogen engines can more
closely approach the thermodynamically ideal
engine cycle.
At leaner mixtures, the flame velocity
decreases significantly.

High Diffusivity
Has very high diffusivity (Velocity ~ 2 cm / sec).
High diffusivity in air, greater than gasoline
and is advantageous for two main reasons.
It facilitates the formation of a uniform
mixture of fuel and air.
If a hydrogen leak develops, the hydrogen
disperses rapidly. Thus, unsafe conditions can
either be avoided or minimized.

Low Density
Hydrogen has very low density.
This results in two problems when used in
an internal combustion engine.
Firstly, a very large volume is necessary
to store enough hydrogen to give a
vehicle an adequate driving range.
Secondly, the energy density of a
hydrogen-air mixture, and hence the
power output, is reduced.

Volume based storage

densities of
different fuels

Production of Hydrogen

Electrolysis of Water
Thermal Cracking of Methane
Ethanol Reforming
Coal Gasification
Steam Reforming
Nuclear Fission
Decomposition of Biomass

HYDROGEN
INFRASTRUCTURE

HYDROGEN FOR AUTO

APPLICATIONS
As combustion fuel directly in IC
engines.
In ad-mixture with CNG and LPG.
Combustion improver.
As a fuel for fuel cell.
In hybrid electric vehicles (H2 to run
small generator for on-board charging

HYDROGEN FOR IC ENGINE APPLICATIONS

Fuel cell is a costly technology - about10 times than IC
engines
It will take at least 10 years to become affordable.
H2 can be used in existing I.C Engines
IC engine is a 100 years established technology and will require
some modifications in tooling to make it adaptable for using
hydrogen as a fuel
H2 is a clean burning fuel in IC engines
It gives only NOx emission which can be minimized to negligible.
No after treatment needed, hence no deterioration of emissions
Hydrogen can be competitive with CNG
With the infrastructure existing for CNG usage, H 2 can replace
CNG
except of additional cost for reforming facility

HYDROGEN STORAGE
Storage as gas under pressure

Cryogenic storage as liquid hydrogen

Storage as metallic hydrides
Storage as ammonia, methanol and
hydrocarbon fuels

ON BOARD STORAGE OF
HYDROGEN
The biggest issue is how to provide
fuel
The space needed to store the fuel
on board the vehicle
Efficient ways for processing fossil
fuels on board must be developed
Even though reforming is a gentler
process than combustion, it still
introduces trace emissions, which
will drag down the overall efficiency
Three methods are available for on

ON BOARD STORAGE OF
HYDROGEN
LIQUID H2
The conditions required are 20 K
temperature and 2 Bar pressure.
To maintain these conditions, LH2 is
stored in a double-walled, super
insulating cryogenic vessel.
Hydrogen can be drawn either in
liquid or gas phase from these
containers
An amount of energy equivalent to
40% of the heating value of H2 is lost
during the liquefaction process.

Liquid Hydrogen

ON BOARD STORAGE OF
HYDROGEN
METAL HYDRIDES
They are based on the fact that gaseous H2
readily absorbs in metals, forming a weak
chemical bond
They are in granular or powder form thus
having larger surface area and large
capacity
To release the gases, the hydride is heated
to a certain temperature
The biggest disadvantage is that they have
low mass energy density and thus tend to
be heavy

Metal Hydrides

ON BOARD STORAGE OF
HYDROGEN
COMPRESSED HYDROGEN
GAS
This is the most straightforward way to

store H2 (aluminum cylinders wrapped in

fiberglass)

Pressurized to 20MPa, H2 gas weighs

approximately 3 times the liquid storage
system and occupies more than twice
the volume
Possibility of leakage is higher

COMPARISON OF ON BOARD STORAGE SYTEMS

FOR HYDROGEN
Gasoline
reference

Liquid
Hydrogen
(20K)

Hydride
(1.2% of
Hydride
weight)

Compressed
H2 (20.7 to
69MPa)

Energy, Btu

629,500

629,500

629,500

629,500

Fuel weight
(kg)

13.9

4.7

4.7

4.7

Tank wt (kg) 6.3

18.6

547.5

63.3-86

Total fuel
system wt
(kg)

20.4

23

552

67.9-90.5

Volume
(liter)

18.9

177.9

189.3

408-227

Safety Precautions

Pressure regulator
Flow control valve
Water trap
Flame arrestor

Water Trap

Hydrogen
in

Hydrogen
out

Wat
er

Flame Arrestor

Challenges - Pre-Ignition
Due to hydrogens lower ignition energy, wider
flammability range and shorter quenching
distance
Premature ignition occurs before ignition by the
spark plug, and results in an inefficient, rough
running engine.
Backfire conditions can also develop if the
premature ignition occurs near the fuel intake
valve and the resultant flame travels back into
the induction system.

Possible causes for Pre-Ignition

Can be caused by hot spots in the combustion
chamber, such as on a spark plug or exhaust
valve, or on carbon deposits.

Backfire can occur when there is overlap

between the opening of the intake and exhaust
valves.
Pyrolysis of oil suspended in the combustion
chamber or in the crevices just above the top
piston ring can contribute to pre-ignition.

Delivery Systems
Adapting or re-designing the fuel delivery system can
be effective in reducing or eliminating pre- ignition.

Hydrogen fuel delivery system can be broken down

into three main types:
Central injection (or carbureted)
Port injection
Direct injection.

Delivery System (Contd)

Central and port fuel delivery systems injection form
the fuel-air mixture during the intake stroke. In the
case of central injection or a carburetor, the injection
is at the inlet of the air intake manifold. In the case of
port injection, it is injected at the inlet port.
Direct cylinder injection is more technologically
sophisticated and involves forming the fuel-air
mixture inside the combustion cylinder after the air
intake valve has closed.

Central Injection or Carbureted Systems

Simplest method of delivering fuel.

Firstly, central injection does not require the
hydrogen supply pressure to be as high as for other
methods.
Secondly, central injection or carburetors are used
on gasoline or diesel engines, making it easy to
convert a standard gasoline or diesel engine to a
hydrogen or a gasoline-diesel/hydrogen engine.

Central Injection or Carbureted Systems

Disadvantage of central injection is

that it is more susceptible to irregular
combustion due to pre- ignition and
backfire.
The greater amount of hydrogen/air
mixture within the intake manifold
compounds the effects of pre-ignition

Port Injection Systems

Hydrogen is injected into the manifold after the
beginning of the intake stroke which reduces the
probability for premature ignition.
Air sent separately at the beginning of the intake
stroke to dilute the hot residual gases and cool any
hot spots.
The inlet supply pressure for port injection tends to
be higher than for carbureted or central injection
systems, but less than for direct injection systems.

Electronic Fuel Injection

The electronic fuel injection (EFI) system meters the
hydrogen to each cylinder.
This system uses individual electronic fuel injectors
(solenoid valves) for each cylinder and are
plumbed to a common fuel rail located down the
center of the intake manifold.
EFI system
uses variable injection timing and
constant fuel rail pressure.

Injector forHydrogen

Direct Injection System

More sophisticated hydrogen engines use direct
injection into the combustion cylinder during the
compression stroke.
In direct injection, the intake valve is closed when the
fuel is injected, completely avoiding premature ignition
during intake stroke. Consequently the engine cannot
backfire into the intake manifold.
The power output of a direct injected hydrogen engine
is 20% more than for a gasoline engine and 42% more
than a hydrogen engine using a carburetor.

Direct Injection Systems (Contd)

While direct injection solves the problem of preignition in the intake manifold, it does not
necessarily prevent pre- ignition within the
combustion chamber.
In addition, due to the reduced mixing time of the
air and fuel in a direct injection engine, the
air/fuel mixture can be non-homogenous.
Direct injection systems require a higher fuel rail
pressure than the other methods.

Ignition Systems
Due to hydrogens low ignition energy
limit, igniting hydrogen is easy and
gasoline ignition systems can be used.
At very lean air/fuel ratios (130:1 to 180:1)
the flame velocity is reduced considerably
and the use of a dual spark plug system is
preferred.

Emissions
The combustion of hydrogen with oxygen
produces water as its only product:
2H2 + O2 = 2H2O
The combustion of hydrogen with air however
can also pro-duce oxides of nitrogen (NO x):
H2 + O2 + N2 = H2O + N2 + NOx + CO + CO2
In addition to oxides of nitrogen, traces of
carbon monoxide and carbon dioxide can be
present in the exhaust gas.

Emissions from IC Engine

Power Output
The theoretical maximum power output from a
hydrogen engine depends on the air/fuel ratio and
fuel injection method used. As mentioned the
stoichiometric air/fuel ratio for hydrogen is 34:1.
At this air/fuel ratio, hydrogen will displace 29% of
the combustion chamber leaving only 71% for the
air.
Brake thermal efficiency increases due to high
heating value of hydrogen.

Use of Hydrogen in CI Engines

Dual fuel engine
Diesel/vegetable oil fuelled engine
Neat Fuel Engine
HCCI Engine
Spark assisted engine

Dual fuel engine

Conclusions
Hydrogen has the potential to be the fuel for the
future with carbon free emission.
Use of appropriate technology to compensate for the
power loss could benefit its usage over a long term.
Development of lighter cylinders (material wise) for
storing Hydrogen.
Challenges of safety in handling need to be carefully
considered while using it as a fuel.