TN7: Basic Forms of

Statistical Sampling for

Quality Control

Acceptance Sampling: Sampling to

accept or reject the immediate lot of product
at hand.
Statistical Process Control (SPC):
Sampling to determine if the process is
within acceptable limits.

Irwin/McGraw-Hill

Acceptance Sampling

Purposes

Determine quality level

Ensure quality is within predetermined level
Lot received for inspection
Sample selected and analyzed
Results compared with acceptance criteria

Accept the lot

Send to production or to
customer

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Reject the lot

Decide on disposition
2

Basic Forms of Variation SPC

Assignable variation is caused

by factors that can be clearly
identified and possibly managed.

Common variation is inherent in

the production process.

Irwin/McGraw-Hill

Control Limits are based on

the Normal Curve

-3

-2

-1

x
z

Standard
deviation
units or
z units.
Irwin/McGraw-Hill

Control Limits
If we establish control limits at +/- 3
standard deviations, then
we would expect 99.7% of our observations
to fall within these limits

x
LCL
Irwin/McGraw-Hill

UCL

UCL

Statistic
al
Process
Control

LCL
UCL

LCL
UCL

LCL

See Exhibit S6.3 for other evidence prompting investigation

Statistical Process Control

(SPC) Charts

UCL

Normal Behavior
LCL
1

Samples
over time

UCL

Possible problem, investigate

LCL
1

UCL

Samples
over time

Possible problem, investigate

LCL
1

Samples
over time

Statistical Sampling--Data
Attribute (Go no-go information)

Defectives

Defects

Typically use sample size of 50-100

Variable (Continuous)

Usually measured by the mean and the

standard deviation
Typically use sample size of 2 to 10

Irwin/McGraw-Hill

Statistical Process Control:

Attribute Measurements (PTotal Number of Defectives
pCharts)
=
Total Number of Observations

Sp =

p (1 - p)
n

UCL = p + Z sp
LCL = p - Z sp
Where Z is equal to the number of Standard Deviations
Irwin/McGraw-Hill

1. Calculate the sample proportion, p, for each

sample.
Sample
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
14
15

Sample
Size
100
100
100
100
100
100
100
100
100
100
100
100
100
100
100

Defectives
4
2
5
3
6
4
3
7
1
2
3
2
2
8
3

p
0.04
0.02
0.05
0.03
0.06
0.04
0.03
0.07
0.01
0.02
0.03
0.02
0.02
0.08
0.03

2. Calculate the average of the sample proportions.

55
p=
= 0.0367
1500

3. Calculate the sample standard deviation.

sp =

p (1 - p)
=
n

.0367(1 - .0367)
= .0188
100

4. Calculate the control limits (where Z=3).

UCL = p + Z sp = .0367 3(.0188) = .0931

LCL = p - Z sp = .0367 - 3(.0188) = - 0.0197 0

p-Chart (Continued)
5.

Plot the individual sample proportions, the average

of the proportions, and the control limits
0.1

UCL

0.08
0.06

p
0.04

CL

0.02

LCL

0
1

Irwin/McGraw-Hill

7
8
9 10
Observation

11

12

13

14

15

12

An Example: Calculate sample means,

sample ranges, mean of means, and
mean of ranges.
Observation
Sample
Sample
Sample
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
14
15

1
10.682
10.787
10.780
10.591
10.693
10.749
10.791
10.744
10.769
10.718
10.787
10.622
10.657
10.806
10.660

2
10.689
10.860
10.667
10.727
10.708
10.714
10.713
10.779
10.773
10.671
10.821
10.802
10.822
10.749
10.681

3
10.776
10.601
10.838
10.812
10.790
10.738
10.689
10.110
10.641
10.708
10.764
10.818
10.893
10.859
10.644

4
5
10.798
10.714
10.746
10.779
10.785
10.723
10.775
10.730
10.758
10.671
10.719
10.606
10.877
10.603
10.737
10.750
10.644
10.725
10.850
10.712
10.658
10.708
10.872
10.727
10.544
10.750
10.801
10.701
10.747
10.728
Overall Averages

Mean
Range
10.732
0.116
10.755
0.259
10.759
0.171
10.727
0.221
10.724
0.119
10.705
0.143
10.735
0.274
10.624
0.669
10.710
0.132
10.732
0.179
10.748
0.163
10.768
0.250
10.733
0.349
10.783
0.158
10.692
0.103
10.728
0.220

Control Limit Formulas

Exhibit
ExhibitTN7.6
TN7.6

x Chart Control Limits

UCL = x + A 2 R
LCL = x - A 2 R
R Chart Control Limits
UCL = D 4 R
LCL = D3 R

n
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11

A2
1.88
1.02
0.73
0.58
0.48
0.42
0.37
0.34
0.31
0.29

D3
0
0
0
0
0
0.08
0.14
0.18
0.22
0.26

D4
3.27
2.57
2.28
2.11
2.00
1.92
1.86
1.82
1.78
1.74

x-Bar Chart
UCL = x + A 2 R 10.728 .58(0.220) = 10.856
LCL = x - A 2 R 10.728 - .58(0.220) = 10.600

S a m p le Me a n

10.9

UCL

10.8
CL
10.7
LCL

10.6

10.5
1

Irwin/McGraw-Hill

8
9 10 11
Sam ple number

12

13

14

15
15

R-Chart
UCL = D 4 R ( 2.11)(0.220) 0.464
LCL = D 3 R (0)(0.220) 0
0.8

S a m p le R a n g e

0.7
0.6
UCL

0.5
0.4
0.3

CL

0.2
0.1

LCL

0.0
1

Irwin/McGraw-Hill

8
9 10 11
Sample number

12

13

14

15
16

Matching Action to the

Type of Variation

If you treat special causes like

common causes, you lose an

opportunity to track down and
eliminate something specific that is
increasing variation in your process.
If you treat common causes like
special causes, you will most likely end
up increasing variation (called
tampering).
Taking the wrong action not only
doesnt improve the situation, it
usually makes it worse.
Irwin/McGraw-Hill

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Quarterly Audit Scores

Score

Quarter
Irwin/McGraw-Hill

18

Quarterly Audit Scores

Score

Quarter
Irwin/McGraw-Hill

19

Quarterly Audit Scores

Score

Irwin/McGraw-Hill

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Process Capability

Process limits (The Voice of the Process or The

Voice of the Data) - based on natural (common
cause) variation

Tolerance limits (The Voice of the Customer)

customer requirements

Process Capability A measure of how capable

the process is to meet customer requirements;
compares process limits to tolerance limits

Irwin/McGraw-Hill

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Process Capability
(a)
specification
natural variation
(c)
specification
natural variation

Irwin/McGraw-Hill

(b)
specification
natural variation
(d)
specification
natural variation

Evans and Lindsay The Management and Control of Quality, Southwestern Books.

22

Process Capability Index, Cpk

Capability Index - shows how well parts
being produced fit into design limit
specifications.
X LTL UTL - X

C pk = min
or

Irwin/McGraw-Hill

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Interpreting the Cpk

Cpk < 1

Not Capable

Cpk = 1

Capable at 3

Cpk = 1.33

Capable at 4

Cpk = 1.67

Capable at 5

Cpk = 2

Capable at 6

Irwin/McGraw-Hill

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Process Capability Index, Cpk

Find the Cpk for the following:

A process has a mean of 50.50 and a

variance of 2.25. The product has a
specification of 50.00 4.00.

Irwin/McGraw-Hill

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Is 99% Good Enough?

22,000 checks will be deducted

from the wrong bank accounts in
the next 60 minutes.

20,000 incorrect drug prescriptions

will be written in the next 12
months.

12 babies will be given to the

wrong parents each day.

Irwin/McGraw-Hill

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Motorolas Initial Six Sigma

Measurement Process

Cycle time; e.g., 81 minutes 27 minutes 9

minutes 3 minutes 1 minute 20 seconds

Defects; e.g., 81 defects 27 defects 9

defects 3 defects
1 defect 0.3 defects
REDUCE BOTH SIMULTANEOUSLY!

Irwin/McGraw-Hill

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Six Sigma Quality

The objective of Six Sigma quality is 3.4
defects per million opportunities!

(Number of Standard Deviations)

3 Sigma

4 Sigma

5 Sigma

6 Sigma

0.0

2700

63

0.57

0.002

0.5

6440

236

3.4

0.019

1.0

22832

1350

32

0.019

1.5

66803

6200

233

3.4

2.0

158,700

22800

1300

32

Irwin/McGraw-Hill

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Defects Per Million Opportunities (DPMO)

But is Six Sigma Realistic?

IRS Tax Advice (phone-in)
(66810 ppm)

100K

10K

Average
Company

1K

Restaurant Bills
Doctor Prescription Writing
Payroll Processing
Order Write-up
Journal Vouchers
Wire Transfers

Air Line Baggage Handling

Purchased Material
Lot Reject Rate

100

(233 ppm)

10

Best in Class

Domestic Airline
Flight Fatality Rate
(3.4 ppm)

2
Irwin/McGraw-Hill

SIGMA

(0.43 ppm)

7
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A Partial List of Organizations in

Atlanta Implementing Six Sigma

Irwin/McGraw-Hill

Coca-Cola
Home Depot
SunTrust Banks
Bank of America
Delta Airlines
Atlantic Envelope Company
GE Capital
Lithonia Lighting

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