CONCRETE PRODUCTION

Lecture 5

GOALS
To give brief information about
I. Concrete-properties,production,composition
II. Cement-types of cement,mostly used cement
III.Construction Materials-mostly used ones.
. To give ideas about how presentation is made
. To upgrade our skills on making presentation

Outline
CONCRETE
1-What is concrete?
2-Composition of concrete
a) Water
b)
c)
d)
e)

Aggregates
Reinforcement
Chemical admixtures
Cement

3-Concrete production
f) Mixing Concrete
g) Workability
h) Curing

Outline continued
4-Properties of Concrete
5-Types of Concrete
6-Concrete Testing
7-Concrete Recycling
CONSTRUCTION MATERIALS
a) Asphalt
b) Aggregate
c) Brick
d) Gypsum

)References

CONCRETE
WHAT IS CONCRETE?

Concrete is one of the most commonly

used building materials.
Concrete is a composite material made
from several readily available
constituents (aggregates, sand, cement,
water).
Concrete is a versatile material that can
easily be mixed to meet a variety of
special needs and formed to virtually
any shape.
.

Advantages

Ability to be cast
Economical
Durable
Fire resistant
Energy efficient
On-site fabrication

Disadvantages

Low tensile strength

Low ductility
Volume instability
Low strength to weight ratio

Composition of concrete

Water
Chemical admixtures
Cement
Aggregates

WATER
Good water is essential for quality
concrete.
Should be good enough to drink--free
of trash, organic matter and excessive
chemicals and/or minerals.
The strength and other properties of
concrete are highly dependent on the
amount of water and the water-cement ratio.

AGGREGATES
Aggregates occupy 60 to 80 percent
of the
volume of concrete.
Sand, gravel and crushed stone are
the
primary aggregates used.
All aggregates must be essentially
free
of silt and/or organic matter.

AGGREGATE
Collective term for sand, gravel
and crushed stone mineral
materials in their natural or
processed state
Roads and highways constitute
the largest single use of
aggregate at 40 percent of the
total

AGGREGATE ORIGINS AND PRODUCTION

Can either be natural or manufactured
I. Natural aggregates are generally extracted from larger rock
formations through an open excavation
II. Manufactured rock typically consists of industrial byproducts
such as slag (byproduct of the metallurgical processing
typically produced from processing steel, tin and copper)
. Specialty rock that is produced to have a particular physical
characteristic not found in natural rock (such as the low
density of lightweight aggregate).

AGGREGATE PHYSICAL PROPERTIES

Toughness and abrasion resistance. Aggregates should be
hard and tough enough to resist crushing, degradation and
disintegration from activities such as manufacturing,
stockpiling, production, placing and compaction.
Durability and soundness. Aggregates must be resistant to
breakdown and disintegration from weathering
(wetting/drying) or else they may break apart and cause
premature pavement distress.

 Particle shape and surface texture. Particle shape and

surface texture are important for proper compaction, load
resistance and workability. Generally, cubic angular-shaped
particles with a rough surface texture are best.
Specific gravity. Aggregate specific gravity is useful in
making weight-volume conversions and in calculating the void
content in compacted Hot Mixed Asphalt
Cleanliness and deleterious materials. Aggregates must be
relatively clean when used in HMA. Vegetation, soft particles,
clay lumps, excess dust and vegetable matter may affect
performance by quickly degrading, which causes a loss of
structural support and/or prevents binder-aggregate bonding

CHEMCAL ADMXTURES
Materials in the form of powder or
fluids that are added to the concrete
to give it certain characteristics not
obtainable with plain concrete
mixes.

In normal use, admixture dosages

are less than 5% by mass of cement,
and are added to the concrete at the
time of batching/mixing.

CHEMCAL ADMXTURES
The most common types of admixtures are:
Accelerators :
- Speed up the hydration (hardening) of the concrete.
- Typical materials used are CaCl2 and NaCl.
Acrylic retarders :
-Slow the hydration of concrete, and are used in large or
difficult pours.
- Typical retarder is table sugar, or sucrose (C12H22O11).

CHEMICAL ADMIXTURES
Air Entraining agents:
-The most commonly used admixtures for agricultural
concrete.
-Produce microscopic air bubbles throughout the concrete.
-Entrained air bubbles:
Improve the durability of concrete exposed to
moisture and freeze/thaw action.
Improve resistance to scaling from deicers and
corrosive agents such as manure or silage.

CHEMICAL ADMIXTURES
Water-reducing admixtures
-Increase the workability of plastic or "fresh" concrete,
allowing it be placed more easily, with less consolidating
effort.
-High-range water-reducing admixtures are a class of
water-reducing admixtures
Increase workability
Reduce the water content of a concrete.
Improves its strength and durability characteristics.

REINFORCEMENT

Strong in compression, as the

aggregate efficiently carries the
compression load.
Weak in tension as the cement
holding the aggregate in place can
crack, allowing the structure to fail.
Reinforced concrete solves these
problems by adding either
metal reinforcing bars, steel fibers,
glass fiber, or plastic fiber to carry
tensile loads.

CEMENT

Crystalline compound of calcium silicates and other calcium

compounds having hydraulic properties.
Considered hydraulic because of their ability to set and harden
under or with excess water through the hydration of the
cements chemical compounds or minerals

CEMENT
Uses
Main use is in the fabrication of concrete and mortars
Modern uses
-Building (floors, beams, columns, roofing, piles, bricks,
mortar, panels, plaster)
-Transport (roads, pathways, crossings, bridges, viaducts,
tunnels, parking, etc.)
-Water (pipes, drains, canals, dams, tanks, pools, etc.)
-Civil (piers, docks, retaining walls, silos, warehousing,
poles, pylons, fencing)
-Agriculture (buildings, processing, housing, irrigation)

CEMENT
HYDRAULIC CEMENTS:
Hydraulic lime: Only used in specialized mortars. Made
from calcination of clay-rich limestones.
Natural cements: Misleadingly called Roman. It is made
from argillaceous limestones or interbedded limestone and
clay or shale, with few raw materials. Because they were
found to be inferior to portland, most plants switched.
Portland cement: Artificial cement. Made by the mixing
clinker with gypsum in a 95:5 ratio.

CEMENT
Portland-limestone cements: Large amounts (6% to
35%) of ground limestone have been added as a filler to a
portland cement base.
Blended cements: Mix of portland cement with one or
more SCM (supplementary cemetitious materials) like
pozzolanic additives.
Pozzolan-lime cements: Original Roman cements. Only
a small quantity is manufactured in the U.S. Mix of pozzolans
with lime.

CEMENT
Masonry cements: Portland cement where other
materials have been added primarily to impart plasticity.
Aluminous cements: Limestones and bauxite are the
main raw materials. Used for refractory applications (such as
cementing furnace bricks) and certain applications where rapid
hardening is required. It is more expensive than portland.
There is only one producing facility in the U.S.

PORTLAND CEMENT
Most active component of concrete
The greatest unit cost in concrete,
Its selection and proper use are
important in obtaining most
economically the balance of properties
desired for any particular concrete mixture.

PORTLAND CEMENT
The production process for portland cement first involves
grinding limestone or chalk and alumina and silica from shale
or clay.
Type I/II portland cements are the most popular cements used
by concrete producers
-Type I cement is the general purpose cement and most
common type. Unless an alternative is specified, Type I is
usually used.
-Type II cement releases less heat during hardening. It is
more suitable for projects involving large masses of concrete-heavy retaining walls

Types of Portland cement

Cement
type

Use

I1

General purpose cement, when there are no extenuating

conditions

II2

Aids in providing moderate resistance to sulfate attack

III

When high-early strength is required

IV3

When a low heat of hydration is desired (in massive

structures)

V4

When high sulfate resistance is required

IA4

A type I cement containing an integral air-entraining agent

IIA4

A type II cement containing an integral air-entraining agent

IIIA4

A type III cement containing an integral air-entraining agent

PORTLAND CEMENT
Physical Properties of Portland Cements
1)
2)
3)
4)
5)
6)
7)

Fineness,
Soundness
Consistency
Setting time
Compressive strength
Heat of hydration
Loss of ignition

Mixing, placing, finishing and curing

of concrete
Mixing: Involves weighing out all the ingredients for a batch of concrete and
mixing them together - A six-bag batch contains six bags of cement per batch
- Hand-mixing (tools used) - Mixing with stationary or paving mixer - Mixing
with truck mixers - Rated capacities of mixers vary from 2cu.ft. to 7cu.yd.
Pumping and placing: Concrete is conveyed to the construction site in wheel
barrows, carts, belt conveyors, cranes or chutes or pumped (high-rise
building) - Pumps have capacities to pump concrete up to 1400 feet and at
170 cu.yds. per hour - Concrete should be placed as near as possible to its
final position - Placed in horizontal layers of uniform thickness (6 to 20) and
consolidated before placing the next layer
Finishing: The concrete must be leveled and surface made smooth/flat Smooth finish; Float/trowel finish; Broom finish; Exposed aggregate finish

Transit Mix Truck (ReadyMix Truck)

Placement Today - Direct

From the Transit Mixer, or

Concrete production
This process develops physical and chemical properties like
mechanical strength, low moisture permeability, and chemical
and volumetric stability.
A properly proportioned concrete mix will provide
Mixing concrete
Workability
Curing

Mixing concrete
Essential for
I. The production of uniform concrete,
II. High quality concrete.
. Equipment and methods should be capable
of effectively mixing

WORKABILITY
It is desirable that freshly mixed concrete
be relatively easy to transport, place,
compact and finish without harmful
segregation.
A concrete mix satisfying these
conditions is said to be workable.

Factors Affecting Workability

Method and duration of transportation
Quantity and characteristics of cementing
materials
Aggregate grading, shape and surface
texture
Quantity and characteristics of chemical
admixtures
Amount of water
Amount of entrained air
Concrete & ambient air temperature

WORKABILITY
Workability is the most
important property of freshly
mixed concrete.
There is no single test
method that can
simultaneously measure all
the properties involved in
workability.
It is determined to a large
extent by measuring the
consistency of the mix.

CONSISTENCY
Consistency is the fluidity or degree of
wetness of concrete.
It is generally dependent on the shear
resistance of the mass.
It is a major factor in indicating the
workability of freshly mixed concrete.

CONSISTENCY
Test methods for measuring consistency
are:
Flow test measures the amount of flow
Kelly-Ball test measures the amount of
penetration
Slump test (Most widely used test!)

 Slump Test is related with the ease with which concrete

flows during placement (TS 2871, ASTM C 143)

Sample collected

Cone Removed and Concrete

Allowed to Slump

Slump Cone Filled

Slump Measured

10 cm

30 cm

20 cm

The slump cone is filled in 3 layers. Every

layer is evenly rodded 25 times.

Measure the slump by determining the vertical difference

between the top of the mold and the displaced original center
of the top surface of the specimen.

Consistency and Workability:

Consistency is a measure of its wetness and fluidity

Measured by the slump test
Workability dependent on water content, fineness of cement, and
surface area of aggregates

CURING OF CONCRETE
Properties of concrete can improve with age as
long as conditions are favorable for the continued
hydration of cement. These improvements are
rapid at early ages and continues slowly for an
indefinite period of time.
Curing is the procedures used for promoting the
hydration of cement and consists of a control of
temperature and the moisture movement from
and into the concrete.

The primary objective of curing is to keep

concrete saturated or as nearly saturated as
possible.
Hydration reactions can
take place in only
saturated water filled
capillaries.

Curing

Concrete that has been

specified, batched, mixed,
placed, and finished "letterperfect" can still be a failure if
improperly or inadequately
cured.
Usually the last step in a
concrete
project and, unfortunately,
is often neglected even by
professionals.

Curing
Curing has a major influence on the properties of hardened
concrete such as durability, strength, water-tightness, wear
resistance, volume stability, and resistance to freezing and
thawing.
Proper concrete curing for agricultural and residential
applications involves keeping newly placed concrete moist
and avoiding temperature extremes (above 90F or below
50F) for at least three days.
A seven-day (or longer) curing time is recommended.

Curing
The best curing method depends on:
Cost,
Application equipment required,
Materials available,
Size and shape of the concrete surface.
Prevent the loss of the mixing water from concrete by sealing
the surface.
Can be done by:
Covering the concrete with impervious paper or plastic
sheets,
Applying membrane-forming curing compounds.

Curing
Begin the curing as soon as the concrete has hardened
sufficiently to avoid erosion or other damage to the freshly
finished surface.
Usually within one to two hours after placement and finishing.

Curing Methods
1.

Methods which supply

additional water to the
surface of concrete
during early hardening
stages.
Using wet covers
Sprinkling
Ponding

2. Methods that prevent loss of moisture from

concrete by sealing the surface.
Water proof plastics
Use liquid membrane-forming compounds
Forms left in place

3. Methods that accelerate strength gain by

supplying heat & moisture to the concrete.
By using live steam (steam curing)
Heating coils.

Properties of concrete

Strength
Elasticity
Cracking
Shrinkage cracking
Tension cracking

Strength
Concrete has relatively
High compressive strength,
Low tensile strength
Fair to assume that a concrete sample's tensile strength is
about 10%-15% of its compressive strength
The ultimate strength of concrete is influenced by
- water-cementitious ratio
-the design constituents
- the mixing
-placement
-curing methods

Elasticity
Function of the modulus of elasticity of the aggregates and the
cement matrix and their relative proportions
The American Concrete Institute allows the modulus of elasticity to
be calculated using the following equation:

where
wc = weight of concrete (pounds per cubic foot) and where

f'c = compressive strength of concrete at 28 days (psi)

CONCRETE DEFECTS

Cracking
Dusting
Scaling
Popouts

Cracking
Cause:
a.) poor or inadequate curing
b.) Too wet mix, excessive floating,
or excessive paste and fines at the
surface
c.) Finishing while there is bleed
water on the surface
d.) Sprinkling cement on the surface
to dry up the bleed water
e.) Carbonation chemical reaction
between cement and carbon
monoxide, or dioxide.

Remedies

Start curing as soon as possible

Use moderate slump
Reduce the effect of water absorption by the sub-grade
DO NOT
Sprinkle or trowel dry cement or cement with fine sand
Sprinkle water to facilitate finishing
Perform finishing operation while bleed water is present
Overwork or over finish the surface
Cure with water much colder than the concrete
Allow alternates wetting and drying at early age
Over use jitterbugs, vibrating screeds and bull-floats
Allow too much clay and dirt in aggregates

Dusting

Causes:
Overly wet mixes
Floating and troweling bleed water into the surface
Clay, dirt, and organic materials in the aggregate
Use of dry cement shakes to dry the surface for earlier finishing
Water applied to the surface by finishers
Uneven heaters for cold weather protection
Inadequate curing, especially in dry weather
Inadequate ventilation in enclosed spaces
Inadequate protection of the fresh concrete from rain, snow, or
drying wind.

 Remedies:
Sandblast, shot blast or use a high-pressure washer to
remove the weak surface layer
Eliminate dusting by applying hardeners, such as
sodium silicate (water glass), or epoxy sealers, or
cement paint.
In sever cases, place a topping course on durable
substrate concrete (may use wet grinding).

Scaling
Causes:
The use of non-air-entrained concrete or too little entrained air.
Application of excessive amounts of calcium or sodium chloride deicing salts on concrete with inadequate strength, air entrainment, or
curing.
Any finishing operation while bleed water is on the surface.
Consequently, overworking the surface will result in high w/c ratio,
low strength, and reduction in air content.
Insufficient curing, results in weak surface skin
Inadequate thermal protection allowing freezing and thawing at a
very early age.
Causes of blistering that increase vulnerability to scaling

 Remedies:
Prepare the top surface. The top surface must
be clean, sound, rough, and textures surface.
Apply a thin bonded resurfacing
Use portland cement concrete resurfacing
Use latex modified concrete resurfacing
Use polymer-modified cementitious-based
repair mortar

Popouts
Causes:
Popouts are roughly cone-shaped pits in
the surface of flatwork after a small piece
of concrete has broken away by internal
pressure. This pressure is due to
expansion, or chemical change

 Remedies:
Switching to a non-offending source of
aggregate for flatwork, if possible
Two-course construction, using selected of
imported aggregate without popout potential for
the top course
Prohibiting application of impervious layers
which aggravate popout problem
Using low slump to prevent potential popoutcausing particle from floating.

Cracking
All concrete structures will crack to some extent.
Cracks due to tensile stress induced by shrinkage or stresses
occurring during setting or use

Shrinkage cracking
Occur when concrete members undergo
restrained volumetric changes
(shrinkage) as a result of either drying,
autogenous shrinkage or thermal effects.
The number and width of shrinkage
cracks that develop are influenced by
-the amount of shrinkage that occurs
-the amount of restraint present
-the amount and spacing of
reinforcement provided.

Tension cracking
Most common in concrete beams where a transversely applied
load will put one surface into compression and the opposite
surface into tension due to induced bending.
The size and length of cracks is dependent on
- The magnitude of the bending moment
- The design of the reinforcing in the beam at the point
under consideration.

SEGREGATION
Segregation refers to a separation of the components
of fresh concrete, resulting in a non-uniform mix

The primary causes of

segregation are differences
in specific gravity and size
of constituents of concrete.
Moreover, improper mixing,
improper placing and
improper consolidation also
lead to segregation.

Sp.Gr.
Cemen
t
C.Agg.
F.Agg.

Size

3-3.15 5-80 m
2.45-40
2.8
mm
2.42.8 < 5 mm

SEGREGATION
Some of the factors affecting segregation:
Larger maximum particle size (25mm) and
proportion of the larger particles.
High specific gravity of coarse aggregate.
Decrease in the amount of fine particles.
Particle shape and texture.
Water/cement ratio.

BLEEDING

Bleeding is the tendency of water to rise to

the surface of freshly placed concrete.

It is caused by the
inability of solid
constituents of the
mix to hold all of the
mixing water as
they settle down.
A special case of
segregation.

BLEEDING
Undesirable effects of bleeding are:

With the movement of water towards the top, the top

portion becomes weak & porous (high w/c). Thus the
resistance of concrete to freezing-thawing decreases.

Water rising to the surface carry fine particles of

cement which weaken the top portion and form
laitance. This portion is not resistant to abrasion.

Water may accumulate under the coarse agg. and

reinforcement. These large voids under the particles
may lead to weak zones and reduce the bond
between paste and agg. or paste and reinforcement.

BLEEDING
The tendency of concrete to bleeding
depends largely on properties of cement.
It is decreased by:
Increasing the fineness of cement
Increasing the rate of hydration (C3S, C3A and
alkalies)
Adding pozzolans
Reducing water content

Types of concrete

Regular concrete
High-strength concrete
Stamped concrete
High-performance concrete
Self-consolidating concretes
Vacuum concretes
Shotcrete
Pervious concrete
Cellular concrete,
Cork-cement composites
Roller-compacted concrete

Glass concrete
Asphalt concrete
Rapid strength concrete
Rubberized concrete
Polymer concrete
Geopolymer or green concrete
Limecrete
Refractory Cement
Concrete cloth
Innovative mixtures
Gypsum concrete

General test methods

Compaction Factor Test (Compacting Factor Test, Glanville)

Compaction Test
Free Orifice Test (Orimet Test)
K-Slump Tester
Cone Penetration Test
Free Flow Test Methods
Moving Sphere Viscometer
Slump Test
Flow Trough Test
Modified Slump Test
Delivery-Chute Torque Meter
Slump Rate Machine
Delivery-Chute Depth Meter
Kelly Ball Test
Surface Settlement Test
Ring Penetration Test

Properties of Fresh Concrete:

Process of maintaining enough moisture in concrete to maintain the rate of
hydration during its early stages - The most important single step in
developing concrete strength, after proper mix design - If not properly
carried out, affects its strength, water tightness and durability
Methods of curing:
Ponding or immersion; spraying or fogging ; wet coverings (with burlap,
cotton mats or tugs); Impervious paper (two sheets of Kraft paper
cemented together by bituminous adhesive with fiber reinforcements);
Plastic sheets (Polyethyelene films 0.10 mm thick); membrane-forming
curing compound; Steam curing

Properties of Fresh Concrete:

Concrete should be such that it can be transported,
placed, compacted and finished without harmful
segregation - The mix should maintain its uniformity and
not bleed excessively; these two are collectively called
as workability - Bleeding is movement and appearance
of water at the surface of freshly-placed concrete, due to
settlement of heavier particles

Top of Slab being protected during cold weather

PROPERTIES OF
HARDENED CONCRETE
The principal properties of hardened
concrete which are of practical importance
can be listed as:
1.
2.
3.
4.

Strength
Permeability & durability
Shrinkage & creep deformations
Response to temperature variations

Of these compressive strength is the most

important property of concrete. Because;

Of the abovementioned hardened

properties compressive strength is one of
the most important property that is often
required, simply because;
Concrete is used for compressive loads
Compressive strength is easily obtained
It is a good measure of all the other properties.

What Affects
Concrete Strength

What
Doesnt?

Factors Affecting Strength

Effect of materials and mix proportions
Production methods
Testing parameters

STRENGTH OF CONCRETE
The strength of a concrete specimen
prepared, cured and tested under specified
conditions at a given age depends on:
1. w/c ratio
2. Degree of compaction

COMPRESSIVE STRENGTH
Compressive Strength is determined by
loading properly prepared and cured cubic,
cylindrical or prismatic specimens under
compression.

COMPRESSIVE STRENGTH
Cubic: 15x15x15 cm
Cubic specimens are crushed after rotating
them 90 to decrease the amount of friction
caused by the rough finishing.
Cylinder: h/D=2 with h=15
To decrease the amount of friction, capping
of the rough casting surface is performed.

COMPRESSIVE STRENGTH

Cubic specimens
without capping

Cylindrical specimens
with capping

COMPRESSIVE STRENGTH

Bonded sulphur capping

Unbonded neoprene pads

STRENGTH CLASSES
(TS EN 206-1)
The compressive strength value depends on
the shape and size of the specimen.

TENSILE STRENGTH
Tensile Strength can be obtained either by
direct methods or indirect methods.
Direct methods suffer from a number of
difficulties related to holding the specimen
properly in the testing machine without
introducing stress concentration and to the
application of load without eccentricity.

DIRECT TENSILE STRENGTH

SPLIT TENSILE STRENGTH

Due to applied compression load a fairly uniform

tensile stress is induced over nearly 2/3 of the
diameter of the cylinder perpendicular to the
direction of load application.

st =

2P
Dl

Splitting Tensile
Strength

P: applied compressive load

D: diameter of specimen
l: length of specimen

 The advantage of the splitting test over the

direct tensile test is the same molds are
used for compressive & tensile strength
determination.
The test is simple to perform and gives
uniform results than other tension tests.

FLEXURAL STRENGTH
The flexural tensile strength at failure or the
modulus of rupture is determined by loading a
prismatic concrete beam specimen.
The results
obtained are useful
because concrete
is subjected to
flexural loads more
often than it is
subjected to tensile
loads.

Factors Affecting the Strength of

Concrete
1)

Factors depended on the

test type:

Size of specimen
Size of specimen in
relation with size of agg.
Support condition af
specimen
Moisture condition of
specimen
Type of loading adopted
Rate of loading
Type of test machine

2.

Factors independent of
test type:

Type of cement
Type of agg.
Degree of compaction
Mix proportions
Type of curing
Type of stress situation

STRESS-STRAIN RELATIONS IN
CONCRETE
ult

(40-50%)
ult

ult

- relationship for
concrete is
nonlinear. However,
specially for
cylindrical
specimens with
h/D=2, it can be
assumed as linear
upto 40-50% of ult

MODULUS OF ELASTICITY OF
CONCRETE
Due to the nonlinearity
of the - diagram, E
is the defined by:
1. Initial Tangent Method
2. Tangent Method
3. Secant Method

ACI E=15200 ult 28-D cylindrical comp.str. (kgf/cm2)

TS E=15500 W 28-D cubic comp.str. (kgf/cm2)

PERMEABILITY OF CONCRETE

Permeability is important because:

1. The penetration of some aggresive solution may result in leaching
out of Ca(OH)2 which adversely affects the durability of concrete.
2.

3.
4.

In R/C ingress of moisture of air into concrete causes corrosion of

reinforcement and results in the volume expansion of steel bars,
consequently causing cracks & spalling of concrete cover.
The moisture penetration depends on permeability & if concrete
becomes saturated it is more liable to frost-action.
In some structural members permeability itself is of importance,
such as, dams, water retaining tanks.

PERMEABILITY OF
CONCRETE
The permeability of concrete is controlled
by capillary pores. The permeability
depends mostly on w/c, age, degree of
hydration.
In general the higher the strength of
cement paste, the higher is the durability &
the lower is the permeability.

DURABILITY
A durable concrete is the one which will
withstand in a satisfactory degree, the
effects of service conditions to which it will
be subjected.
Factors Affecting Durability:
External Environmental
Internal Permeability, Characteristics of
ingredients, Air-Void System...

MIXING OF CONCRETE
Ready-Mix concrete: In this type
ingredients are introduced into a mixer
truck and mixed during transportation to
the site.

Wet Water added before transportation

Dry Water added at site

Mixing at the site

Hand mixed
Mixer mixed

Ready Mix Concrete

Mixing at Site

MIXING OF CONCRETE
Mixing time should be sufficient to produce
a uniform concrete. The time of mixing
depends on the type of mixer and also to
some properties of fresh concrete.
Undermixing non-homogeneity
Overmixing danger of water loss,
brekage of aggregate particles

CONSOLIDATING CONCRETE
Inadequate consolidation
can result in:
Honeycomb
Excessive amount of
entrapped air voids
(bugholes)
Sand streaks
Placement lines (Cold joints)

VIBRATION OF CONCRETE
The process of compacting concrete
consists essentially of the elimination of
entrapped air. This can be achieved by:
Tamping or rodding the concrete
Use of vibrators

VIBRATORS
Internal vibrator: The poker is immersed
into concrete to compact it. The poker is
easily removed from point to point.
External vibrators: External vibrators
clamp direct to the formwork requiring
strong, rigid forms.

Internal Vibration
Vibrator
d
R

1 R

Radius of Action

Internal Vibrators Adapted from ACI 309

Diameter Recommended Approximate Rate of
of head,
frequency,
radius of placement,
(vib./min.) action, (mm) (m3/h)
(mm)

20-40

30-60

50-90

9000-15,000

8500-12,500

8000-12,000

80-150

130-250

180-360

Application

0.8-4

Plastic and flowing

concrete in thin
members. Also used for
lab test specimens.

2.3-8

Plastic concrete in thin

walls, columns, beams,
precast piles, thin slabs,
and along construction
joints.

4.6-15

Stiff plastic concrete

(less than 80-mm
slump) in general
construction .

Systematic Vibration
CORRECT
Vertical penetration a few inches
into previous lift (which should not
yet be rigid) of systematic regular
intervals will give adequate
consolidation

INCORRECT
Haphazard random penetration of
the vibrator at all angles and
spacings without sufficient depth will
not assure intimate combination of
the two layers

Internal Vibrators
To aid in the removal of trapped air the vibrator
head should be rapidly plunged into the mix
and slowly moved up and down.

The actual completion

of vibration is judged by
the appearance of the
concrete surface which
must be neither rough
nor contain excess
cement paste.

External Vibrators
Form vibrators
Vibrating tables (Lab)
Surface vibrators
Vibratory screeds
Plate vibrators
Vibratory roller
screeds
Vibratory hand floats
or trowels

External Vibrators
External vibrators are rigidly clamped to the
formwork so that both the form & concrete are
subjected to vibration.
A considerable amount of work is needed to
vibrate forms.
Forms must be strong and tied enough to prevent
distortion and leakage of the grout.

External Vibrators
Vibrating Table:
used for small
amounts of
concrete
(laboratory and
some precast
elements)

CONCRETE MIX DESIGN

Objective : To determine the proportion of ingredients that would
produce a workable concrete mix that is durable, and of required
strength, and at a minimum cost

Principles of Mix Design

- Workable mix
- Use as little cement as possible
- Use as little water as possible
- Gravel and sand to be proportioned to achieve a dense mix
- Maximum size of aggregates should be as large as possible, to minimize
surface area of aggregates

1.Methods of Mix Design

- Volumetric method (arbitrary)
- Proportioning from field data method
- Proportioning by trial mixtures method
- Mass proportioning method
- Absolute volume method (CSA approved method)
2.CSA Design based on Absolute Volume
1 Using the given data, select the maximum slump as per the task
2 Select the maximum size of aggregates
3 Estimate the mixing water and air content
4 Select the w/c ratio
5 Calculate the cement content
6 Estimate the weight of dry rodded coarse aggregates
7 Estimate the fine aggregate content
8 Find the weights of field mix (containing moisture) per unit volume
9 Compute the field mix proportions

CONCEPT OF REINFORCING CONCRETE WITH STEEL

REINFORCEMENT
- Why do you need steel reinforcement?
- Properties of steel reinforcing bars
- Size, grade, identification marks, ribbed
- Bars, welded wire mesh
- Standard hooks, ties and stirrups
- Chairs and bolsters for supporting reinforcing bars in beams and slabs
- Continuity in beams and slabs
- One-way or two-way reinforced beams and slabs

Concrete Reinforcing

Concrete - No Useful Tensile

Strength
Reinforcing Steel - Tensile
Strength
Similar Coefficient of thermal
expansion
Chemical Compatibility
Adhesion Of Concrete To
Steel
Theory of Steel Location

Place reinforcing steel

Reinforcing Steel

Sizes
Eleven Standard Diameters
3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11, 14, 18
Number refers to 1/8ths of an
inch

Grades
40, 50, 60
Steel Yield Strength
(in thousands of psi)

Details of Markings in
Reinforcement

Reinforcing Stirrups

Position Beam Reinforcing

Resist Diagonal Forces / Resist Cracking

Reinforcing a Continuous Concrete

Beam

Most Beams are not simple span beams

Location of Tension Forces Changes
Midspan - Bottom in Tension
At Beam Supports - Top in Tension

Reinforcing Concrete
Columns

Vertical Bars
Carry Compressive &

Tension Loads
Bar Configuration Multi-story
Ties - Small bars
- Wrapped around the vertical bars
- Help prevent buckling
- Circular or Rectangular
- Column Ties or
- Column Spirals
Installation

Welded Wire Fabric (WWF)

Type of Reinforcing
Grid of wires spaced 2-12 inches apart
Specified by wire gauge and spacing
Typical Use - Horizontal Surfaces
Comes in Mats or Rolls
Advantage - Labor Savings

TYPE OF CONCRETE FOR STRUCTURAL USE

- Mass concrete
- Normal reinforced concrete - Beam behavior and cracking
- Pre-stressed concrete
- Mechanics of pre-stressing
- Pre-tensioned and post-tensioned profile of pre-stressing bars
- Casting of a concrete wall
- Casting of a floor and roof framing system

Prestressing
Theory: Place all the concrete of the member in compression

(take advantage of concretes compressive strength of the

entire member)
Advantages:
- Increase the load carrying
capacity
- Increase span length, or
- Reduce the members size

Prestressing - Pretensioning

Pretensioning
Prior to concrete placement
Generally performed

at a plant - WHY???

Prestressing - Posttensioning
Cables positioned prior to concrete placement
Stressed after concrete placement (& curing)
Generally performed
at the jobsite

Large Conduits for Placement of

Post Tensioning Cables on a Bridge

Casting A Concrete Wall

Layout, Install one side, anchor, & brace

Coat w/ Form Release

Wall Braced

Wall Braced

Casting A Concrete Wall

Install Form Ties

Small diameter metal rods which hold the forms
together (generally remain in the wall)

Snap Tie

Casting A Concrete Wall

Install Embeds (if

required)

Install Bulkheads

Inspect

Erect second side

Plumb& Brace

Establish Pour Hgt.

Elevated Framing Systems

One-Way System
Spans across parallel lines of
support furnished by walls
and/or beams

Two-Way System
Spans supports running in
both directions

One-Way Slab & Beam

Two-Way Flat Slab

Flat slab w/ reinforcing beams

Flat
Plate

Drop Panel

With, or w/o Capitals or drop panels

Drop Panel w/
Capital

Two-Way Waffle Slab

Concrete recycling
increasingly common method of disposing of
concrete structures
recycling is increasing due to
-improved environmental awareness
- governmental laws
-economic benefits
Recycling concrete provides
-environmental benefits
-conserving landfill space