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Barnett/Ziegler/Byleen

Precalculus: A Graphing Approach

Chapter Three
Polynomial & Rational Functions

Copyright 2000 by the McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.

Synthetic Division
2x3 1x2 + 2x 5

Quotient

Dividend coefficients

Quotient coefficients

Remainder

Copyright 2000 by the McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.

3-1-23

Left and Right Behavior of a Polynomial


P(x) = anxn + an1xn1 +
1. an > 0 and n even

...

+ a1x + a0 , an 0
2. an > 0 and n odd

Graph of P(x) increases without


bound as x decreases to the left
and as x increases to the right.
y

Graph of P(x) decreases without


bound as x decreases to the left
and increases without bound as x
increases to the right.
y

P(x) asx
P(x) asx

(x)

P(x) asx
P(x) asx

Copyright 2000 by the McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.

3-1-24(a)

Left and Right Behavior of a Polynomial


P(x) = anxn + an1xn1 +

...

+ a1x + a0 , an 0
4. an < 0 and n odd

3. an < 0 and n even


Graph of P(x) decreases without
bound as x decreases to the left
and as x increases to the right.
y

Graph of P(x) increases without


bound as x decreases to the left and
decreases without bound as x
increases to the right.
y

x)
x

P(x) asx
P(x) asx

P(x) asx
P(x) asx

Copyright 2000 by the McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.

3-1-24(b)

Fundamental Theorem of Algebra


Every polynomial P(x) of degree n > 0 has at least one zero.

n Zeros Theorem
Every polynomial P(x) of degree n > 0 can be expressed as the product
of n linear factors. Hence, P(x) has exactly n zerosnot necessarily distinct.

Imaginary Zeros Theorem


Imaginary zeros of polynomials with real coefficients, if they exist, occur
in conjugate pairs.

Real Zeros and Odd-Degree Polynomials


A polynomial of odd degree with real coefficients always has at least
one real zero.
Copyright 2000 by the McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.

3-2-25

Rational Zero Theorem

b
If the rational number , in lowest terms, is a zero of the polynomial
c
n

n-1

P(x) = anx + an-1x

+ . . . + a1x + a0

an 0

with integer coefficients, then b must be an integer factor of a0 and


c must be an integer factor of an.

Copyright 2000 by the McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.

3-2-26

Location Theorem
If f is continuous on an interval I, a and b are two numbers in I, and f(a)
and f(b) are of opposite sign, then there is at least one x intercept between a and b.

Upper and Lower Bounds of Real Zeros


Given an nth-degree polynomial P(x) with real coefficients, n > 0, an > 0,
and P(x) divided by x r using synthetic division:
1. Upper Bound. If r > 0 and all numbers in the quotient row of the synthetic division,
including the remainder, are nonnegative, then r is an upper bound of the real
zeros of P(x).
2. Lower Bound. If r < 0 and all numbers in the quotient row of the synthetic division,
including the remainder, alternate in sign, then r is a lower bound of the real
zeros of P(x).
[Note: In the lower-bound test, if 0 appears in one or more places in the quotient row,
including the remainder, the sign in front of it can be considered either positive or
negative, but not both. For example, the numbers 1, 0, 1 can be considered to alternate
in sign, while 1, 0, 1 cannot.]
Copyright 2000 by the McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.

3-3-27

The Bisection Method


Approximate to one decimal place the zero of
P(x) = x4 2x3 10x2 + 40x 90
on the interval (3, 4).
Sign Change Interval
(a, b)

Midpoint
m

Sign of P
P(a) P(m) P(b)

(3, 4)

3.5

(3.5, 4)

3.75

(3.5, 3.75)

3.625

(3.5, 3.625)

3.5625

(3.5625, 3.625)

Stop here
3.5625

(
3

( ( )
3.5

3.625
)
3.75

)
4

Nested intervals produced by the Bisection Method


Copyright 2000 by the McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.

3-3-28

Zeros of Even and Odd Multiplicity


If P(x) is a polynomial with real coefficients, then:
1.

If r is a zero of odd multiplicity, then P(x) changes sign at r


and does not have a local extremum at x = r.

2.

If r is a zero of even multiplicity, then P(x) does not change


sign at r and has a local extremum at x = r.

The bisection method requires that the function change sign at a zero
in order to approximate that zero. Thus, this method will always fail
at a zero of even multiplicity. Zeros of even multiplicity can be
approximated by using a maximum or minimum approximation
routine, whichever applies.

Copyright 2000 by the McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.

3-3-29

Analyzing and Sketching the Graph of


n(x )
a
f (x )
d(x )
Rational Function:
Step 1.

Intercepts. Find the real solutions of the equation n(x) = 0


and use these solutions to plot any x intercepts of the
graph of f. Evaluate f(0), if it exists, and plot the y
intercept.

Step 2.

Vertical Asymptotes. Find the real solutions of the equation


d(x) = 0 and use these solutions to determine the domain of
f, the points of discontinuity, and the vertical asymptotes.
Sketch any vertical asymptotes as dashed lines.

Step 3.

Horizontal Asymptotes. Determine whether there is a


horizontal asymptote, and if so, sketch it as a dashed line.

Step 4.

Complete the Sketch. Using a graphing utility graph as an


aid, and the information determined in steps 1-3, sketch the
graph.
Copyright 2000 by the McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.

3-4-30

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