Toxic Release and

Dispersion Models
Chapter 5

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Toxic releases
In an accident, significant quantities of
toxicants can be released from process
equipment
Disperses throughout the plant and
neighboring community
Bhopal MIC incident is an example of the
consequences of unmitigated dispersion of
toxicants

Our jobs as engineers to prevent

the
existence of release situations and reduce
impact
should one occur
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What affects dispersion?

Dispersion models describe airborne
transportation
of toxic materials
from the source
Wind carries away material in a plume
Maximum concentration at release point

Parameters affecting dispersion

wind speed
Atmospheric stability
Ground conditions (buildings, water, trees)
Height of release above ground level
Momentum and buoyancy
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How these parameters contribute

Wind speed
Increasing wind speed results in narrower and longer
plumes

Atmospheric stability
Air/ground temperature affects vertical mixing of the air
Three classes
unstable
Sun heats the ground faster than heat can be removed (early morning)
Enhanced turbulence

neutral
Air above ground warms and wind speed increases to reduce solar
warming effects
Air temperature difference does not affect turbulence

stable
Sun cannot heat ground as fast as it is cooling (temperature near the
ground is lower than upper air temperatures)
Influence of buoyance suppresses turbulence

How these parameters contribute

Ground conditions
Affects mechanical mixing at the surface
and the wind profile with height
Vertical obstacles increase mixing

How these parameters contribute

Release height significantly affects
ground level concentrations

How these parameters contribute

Buoyant
and momentum of
the material released change the
effective height of the release

Sufficiently mixed with air to be neutrally

buoyant

Neutrally Buoyant Dispersion Models

Estimate the concentration downwind of
a release in which the gas is mixed with
fresh air to the point the resulting
mixture is neutrally buoyant

plume model
Steady-state concentration of material
released from a continuous source

Neutrally Buoyant Dispersion Models

puff model
Temporal concentration of a material from
a single release of a fixed amount

Other things to consider

Often want to
consider multiple
conditions to
determine worst
cases
sitting
Design mitigation
Emergency
response plans
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Worst Case Scenario

Worst case scenarios to consider
Highest concentration in a plume is at the
release point
Highest concentration in a puff is at the center
of the puff
In design, assume weather conditions resulting
in the highest concentration estimates

Keep in mind the applicability of the model

you choose to the release concentration
(i.e., only a few ppm or do you need a more
robust model)
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Toxic Effect Criteria

Youve chosen/developed a model of
dispersion, how do we determine how
dangerous it is?
TLV-TWA is too conservative for
emergency conditions
Alternatives?

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Toxic Effect Criteria

Emergency response planning guidelines
(ERPG) for air contaminants
American Industrial Hygiene Association (AIHA)
ERPG-1
Max airborne concentration below which it is believed nearly
all individuals could be exposed for up to 1 hour with only mild,
transient effects

ERPG-2
Max airborne concentration below which it is believed nearly
all individuals could be exposed for up to 1 hour without
experiencing/developing irreversible health effects impairing
ability to take protective action

ERPG-3
Max airborne concentration below which it is believed nearly
all individuals could be exposed for up to 1 hour without
experiencing/developing life-threatening health effects

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Toxic Effect Criteria

Others
NIOSH Immediately Dangerous to Life or Health
(IDLH)
National Academy of Sciences/National Research
Councils emergency exposure guidance levels
(EEGLs) and short-term public emergency
guidance levels (SPEGLs)
ACGIHs TLV-STEL and TLV-C
OSHAs PEL
New Jersey Dept. of Environmental Protection
Toxicity Dispersion (TXDS)
EPAs toxic endpoints as part of RMP
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Release Mitigation
Part of the consequence modeling procedure
Inherent safety
Inventory reduction, chemical substitution, process
attenuation

Engineering design
Spill containment, emergency relief devices

Management
Policies, procedures, maintenance programs

Warning systems
countermeasures
Curtains (air, water, steam), deliberate ignition of explosive
cloud

Emergency response
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