What is Quality?

To Satisfy Customers
Requirements Continuously

Prof M. Ramani

Meaning of Quality
Websters Dictionary

degree of excellence of a thing

American Society for Quality

totality of features and

characteristics that satisfy needs

Consumers and Producers

Perspective
Prof M. Ramani

Dimensions of Quality
Definitions of Quality
Quality means fitness for use
- quality of design
- quality of conformance
Quality is inversely proportional
to variability.
Prof M. Ramani

Meaning of Quality:
Consumers Perspective
Fitness for use
how well product or
service does what it is
supposed to

Quality of design
designing quality
characteristics into a
product or service
A Mercedes and a Ford
are equally fit for use,
but with different design
dimensions
Prof M. Ramani

Dimensions of Quality:
Manufactured Products
Performance

basic operating characteristics of a

product; how well a car is handled or its
gas mileage

Features

extra items added to basic features,

such as a stereo CD or a leather interior in
a car

Reliability

probability that a product will operate

properly within an expected time frame;
that is, a TV will work without repair for
about seven
years
Prof M.
Ramani

Dimensions of Quality:
Manufactured Products (cont.)

Conformance

degree to which a product meets pre

established standards

Durability

how long product lasts before replacement

Serviceability

ease of getting repairs, speed of repairs,

courtesy and competence of repair person

Prof M. Ramani

Dimensions of Quality:
Manufactured Products (cont.)
Aesthetics

how a product looks, feels, sounds,

smells, or tastes

Safety

assurance that customer will not

suffer injury or harm from a product;
an especially important
consideration for automobiles

Perceptions

subjective perceptions based on

brand name, advertising, and the
like
Prof M. Ramani

Dimensions of Quality:
Service
Time and Timeliness
How long must a customer wait for
service, and is it completed on time?
Is an overnight package delivered
overnight?

Completeness:
Is everything customer asked for
provided?
Is a mail order from a catalogue
company complete when delivered?
Prof M. Ramani

Dimensions of Quality:
Service (cont.)
Courtesy:
How are customers treated by
employees?
Are catalogue phone operators nice and
are their voices pleasant?

Consistency
Is the same level of service provided to
each customer each time?
Is your newspaper delivered on time every
morning?
Prof M. Ramani

Dimensions of Quality:
Service (cont.)
Accessibility and convenience
How easy is it to obtain service?
Does a service representative answer you calls quickly?

Accuracy
Is the service performed right every time?
Is your bank or credit card statement correct every
month?

Responsiveness
How well does the company react to unusual situations?
How well is a telephone operator able to respond to a
customers questions?

Prof M. Ramani

Meaning of Quality:
Producers Perspective
Quality of Conformance
Making sure a product or service is
produced according to design
if new tires do not conform to
specifications, they wobble
if a hotel room is not clean when a guest
checks in, the hotel is not functioning
according to specifications of its design
Prof M. Ramani

Meaning of Quality:
A Final Perspective
Consumers and producers
perspectives depend on each
other
Consumers perspective: PRICE
Producers perspective: COST
Consumers view must
dominate
Prof M. Ramani

Meaning of Quality
Meaning
Meaning of
of Quality
Quality

Production
Production

Producers
Producers Perspective
Perspective

Consumers
Consumers Perspective
Perspective

Quality
Quality of
of Conformance
Conformance

Quality
Quality of
of Design
Design

Conformance
to
specifications
Cost

Quality characteristics
Price

Fitness
Fitness for
for
Consumer
Consumer Use
Use
Prof M. Ramani

Marketing
Marketing

What is Total Quality

Management?
Total Made up of the whole(or) Complete.
Quality Degree of Excellence a product
or service provides to the customer in
present and future.
Management Act , art, or manner of
handling , controlling, directing, etc.
TQM is the art of managing the whole to
achieve excellence.

Definition TQM

Total Quality Management

(TQM) is a management
strategy aimed at embedding
awareness of quality in all
organizational processes.
Prof M. Ramani

15

What is the need for Quality Management ?

Reasons for quality becoming a cardinal priority for most

organizations:
Competition Todays market demand high quality products at
low cost. Having `high quality reputation is not enough! Internal
cost of maintaining the reputation should be less.
Changing customer The new customer is not only
commanding priority based on volume but is more demanding
about the quality system.
Changing product mix The shift from low volume, high price
to high volume, low price have resulted in a need to reduce the
internal cost of poor quality.
Product complexity As systems have become more complex,
the reliability requirements for suppliers of components have
become more stringent.
Higher levels of customer satisfaction Higher customers
expectations are getting spawned by increasing competition.

Prof M. Ramani

Definition of quality

Today, there is no single universal definition of quality.

Some people view quality as performance to
standards.
Others view it as meeting the customers needs
Satisfying the customer.
Lets look at some of the more common definitions
of quality.
Conformance to specifications measures how
well the product or service meets the targets
and tolerances determined by its designers.

Prof M. Ramani

Cost of Quality (COQ)

Out-of-pocket
Out-of-pocket costs
costs associated
associated with
with
quality
quality generally
generally fall
fall into
into two
two
categories:
categories:
Costs
Costsassociated
associatedwith
with
activities
activitiesto
tocorrect
correctfailure
failure
to
tocontrol
controlquality.
quality.

Costs
Costsassociated
associatedwith
with
controlling
controllingquality.
quality.
Prof M. Ramani

BASIC CONCEPTS OF TQM

A successful TQM programme requires the following

six basic concepts.
1.
Top
Management
Commitment:
Top
management should participate and completely
involve in the total quality programme. They should
ensure their complete commitment to the approach
through
management
meetings,
company
magazines or newsletters. Also, top management
should make sure that everybody within the
organization from top to bottom is communicated
about the TQM programme.

 2. Focus on the customer : Achieving customer

satisfaction is the heart of TQM. Customers include both
internal and external customers. So focus on the
customer is the key for any TQM programme.
3. Effective involvement and utilization of the
entire work force: This concept is sometimes referred
as principle of employees involvement or respect for
people. TQM is a team work. Total quality recognizes
that each person is responsible for the quality of his
work and for the work of the group. All persons must be
trained in TQM, Statistical Process Control (SPC), and
other appropriate quality improvement skills so that
they can effectively participate on quality teams.

 4. Continuous improvement:: TQM is based on

the quest for progress and improvement. TQM
believes that there is always a better way of doing
things, way to make better use of the companys
total quality resources, a way to be more
productive. For this purpose various quality tools
and techniques may be used.
5. Treating suppliers as partners: Since the
suppliers influence the companys quality,
therefore a partnering relationship should be
developed between the management and the
suppliers.

 6. Establishing performance measures

for
the
processes:
As
we
know,
quantitative data are necessary to measure
the continuous quality improvement activity.
Therefore performance measures such as
uptime,
productivity,
sales
turnover,
absenteeism, percent non- conforming,
customer satisfaction, etc., should be
determined for each functional area. These
results can be used for further improvement
activities.

QualityCost
Relationship
Cost of quality
Difference between price of
nonconformance and conformance
Cost of doing things wrong
20 to 35% of revenues

Cost of doing things right

3 to 4% of revenues

Profitability
In the long run, quality is free

Prof M. Ramani

Cost to Control Quality

Prevention
Prevention

Activities
Activitiesthat
thatseek
seekto
to
prevent
defects
in
the
prevent defects in the
products
productsor
orservices
servicesbeing
being
produced.
produced.
Certifying
CertifyingSuppliers
Suppliers
Designing
Designingfor
for
Manufacturability
Manufacturability
Quality
QualityTraining
Training
Quality
QualityEvaluations
Evaluations
Process
ProcessImprovements
Improvements

Prof M. Ramani

Appraisal
Appraisal

Activities
Activitiesfor
forinspecting
inspecting
inputs
and
attributes
inputs and attributesof
of
individual
individualunits
unitsof
ofproduct
product
and
andservice.
service.
Inspecting
InspectingMaterials
Materials
Inspecting
InspectingMachines
Machines
Inspecting
InspectingProcesses
Processes
Statistical
StatisticalProcess
ProcessControl
Control
Sampling
Samplingand
andTesting
Testing

Costs of Failing to Control

Quality
Internal
Internal Failure
Failure
Costs
Costs associated
associated
with
with defects
defects in
in
processes
processes and
and
products
products that
that are
are
found
found prior
prior to
to
delivery
delivery to
to
customers.
customers.
Disposing
Disposing of
of Scrap
Scrap
Rework
Rework
Reinspecting/Retest
Reinspecting/Retest
ing
ing
Delaying
Delaying Processes
Processes
Prof M. Ramani

External
External Failure
Failure
Costs
Costs associated
associated
with
with defects
defects in
in
processes
processes and
and
products
products that
that are
are
detected
detected after
after
delivery
delivery to
to
customers.
customers.
Warranty
Warranty Repairs
Repairs
Field
Field Replacements
Replacements
Product
Product Liability
Liability
Restoring
Restoring
reputation
reputation

Prevention Costs
Quality planning costs

costs of developing and

implementing quality
management program

Product-design costs
costs of designing
products with quality
characteristics

Process costs

costs expended to
make sure productive
process conforms to
quality specifications

Prof M. Ramani

Training costs
costs of developing and
putting on quality
training programs for
employees and
management

Information costs
costs of acquiring and
maintaining data
related to quality, and
development of reports
on quality performance

Appraisal Costs
Inspection and testing

costs of testing and inspecting materials,

parts, and product at various stages and at
the end of a process

Test equipment costs

costs of maintaining equipment used in

testing quality characteristics of products

Operator costs

costs of time spent by operators to gar data

for testing product quality, to make
equipment adjustments to maintain quality,
and to stop work to assess quality
Prof M. Ramani

Internal Failure Costs

Process downtime
costs

Scrap costs

costs of poor-quality
products that must be
discarded, including labor,
material, and indirect costs

Rework costs

costs of fixing defective

products to conform to
quality specifications

Process failure costs

costs of determining why

production process is
producing poor-quality
products
Prof M. Ramani

costs of shutting down

productive process to
fix problem

Price-downgrading
costs
costs of discounting
poor-quality products
that is, selling products
as seconds

External Failure Costs

Customer complaint
costs

costs of investigating and

satisfactorily responding to
a customer complaint
resulting from a poorquality product

Product return costs

costs of handling and

replacing poor-quality
products returned by
customer

Warranty claims costs

costs of complying with

product warranties
Prof M. Ramani

Product liability
costs
litigation costs
resulting from
product liability and
customer injury

Lost sales costs

costs incurred
because customers
are dissatisfied with
poor quality
products and do not
make additional
purchases

Prof M. Ramani

Why Quality
Quality Up
Processing
Time down

Image up
Service
cost down
Sales
Volume up

Price(?)
Competition
down

Rework &
Scrap cost
down

Inspection &
test cost down
Scale
Economies
up

Revenue
up

Inventory
Down [assume-goods sold]
Complaint &
Warranty cost
down
Productivity
Up---meaning?
Operation
Cost down

Profits up

Prof M. Ramani

Capital
cost down-?

Prof M. Ramani

Why Quality Management

1.Question of survival in an intense competitive
environment
Today LPG (Liberalized, privatized and
Globalized) system has made the global market a
single
one---allowing almost free exchange of goods and
services.
Suppliers not only face competition in the local
market but also from the international market.
The emphasis is on delighting and winning over
customers. Just conforming to specification and
satisfying customers is no more enough.
2. Increase customer consciousness:
Customers are more educated now.The needs of
customers keep on changing. Unless the
suppliers are Prof
capable
of satisfying the changed
M. Ramani

Need for earning profit instead of making profi

ost price + profit = Sales price (SP)

he supplier organization can only make profit by

ntrolling the cost. The components of the cost price
he material cost, labour cost and energy cost, etc. w
e very difficult to control. Only thing can be controlle
uality cost.
uality cost- cost incurred by organization for making
on-conforming products. The cost of repair, reproces
nd scraping non-conforming products. To reduce qua
st, the objective of the supplier should be to make t
ght the first time and every time - a TQM approach.
Prof M. Ramani

Barriers in TQM
The various roadblocks in implementing TQM are:
Lack of management commitment.
Lack of faith in and support to TQM activities
among management personnel.
Failure to appreciate TQM as a cultural revolution.
In other words, inability to change organizational
culture.
Misunderstanding about the concept of TQM.
Improper planning.
Lack of employees commitment.
Lack of effective communication.

Barriers in TQM
Lack of continuous training and education.
Lack of interest or incompetence of leaders.
Ineffective measurement techniques and lack of
access to data and results.
Non-application of proper tools and techniques.
Inadequate use of empowerment and team work.
Inadequate attention to internal and external
customers.
Delay
or
non-implementation
of
quality
improvement teams recommendations.

Benefits of TQM
Tangible
Benefits
Improved product
quality
Improved productivity
Reduced quality costs
Increased market and
customers
Increased profitability
Reduced employee
grievances

Intangible Benefits
Improved employee
participation
Improved teamwork
Improved working
relationships
Improved customer
satisfaction
Improved communication
Enhancement of job
interest.
Enhanced problem-solving
capacity.
Better company image

Quality Management
Gurus

CONTRIBUTIONS BY QUALITY
GURUS
To
fully
understand
the
TQM
movement, we need to look at the
philosophies of notable individuals
who have shaped the evolution of
TQM.
Their
philosophies
and
teachings have contributed to our
knowledge and understanding of
quality today.

Outline
We have eight Gurus :
1. Deming
2. Juran
3. Crosby
4. Feigenbaum
5. Ishikawa
6. Garvin
7. Shingo
8. Taguchii
_ Despite there are eight gurus in assessing total quality
management , but there are differences in their opinions

Walter A. Shewhart
Walter A. Shewhart was a statistician at Bell Labs
during the 1920s and 1930s. Shewhart studied
randomness and recognized that variability
existed in all manufacturing processes. He
developed quality control charts that are used to
identify whether the variability in the process is
random or due to an assignable cause, such as
poor workers or miscalibrated machinery. He
stressed that eliminating variability improves
quality. His work created the foundation for
todays statistical process control, and he is often
referred to as the grandfather of quality control.

 W. Edwards Deming is often referred to as the

father of quality control.
He was a statistics professor at New York University in
the 1940s. After World War II he assisted many Japanese
companies in improving quality. The Japanese regarded
him so highly that in 1951 they established the Deming
Prize, an annual award given to firms that demonstrate
outstanding quality. It was almost 30 years later that
American businesses began adopting Demings
philosophy. A number of elements of Demings
philosophy depart from traditional notions of quality.
The first is the role management should play in a
companys quality

Demings Philosophy ( 14 Points)

Create and publish aims/purpose of firm

Learn the new philosophy
Understand purpose of inspection
Stop awarding business on price alone
Improve constantly and forever the
system
Institute training
Teach and institute leadership
Drive out fear, create trust and a
climate for innovation

 Optimize efforts of teams, groups and

staff areas
Eliminate exhortations for the work force
Eliminate numerical quotas for workforce
and MBO
Remove barriers that rob people of pride
of workmanship
Encourage education and selfempowerment for everyone
Take action to accomplish the
transformation

Who was W. Edwards

Deming
Dr. W. Edwards Deming is known as the father of the
Japanese post-war industrial revival and was regarded
by many as the leading quality guru in the United
States. He passed on in 1993.
His expertise was used during World War II to assist the
United States in its effort to improve the quality of war
materials

Who was W. Edwards

Deming
- He got his PHD in the states in physics and math's
- Get his first employment chance in an electricity
company in Chicago
- He taught physics , mathematics , statistics and quality
in Japan .
* Deming is best known for his management philosophy ,
establishing quality , productivity and competitive
position .

Deming

1.
2.
3.
4.
5.

Deming focus on 5 ideas :

Statistical process controlling (SPC)
Deming philosophy
Deming 14 points
Deming Cycle (for continuous improvements)
Seven deadly diseases of quality

Deming
1. Statistical process controlling: its a process which aims
at achieving good quality during manufacture through
prevention rather than detection .
* It is concerned with controlling the process (machine)
which make the product through inspecting the machine
rather than the product itself.
. For example why the salesman cant sell the same amount
every month ?
. SPC will answer this question by discovering and
analyzing these items :-

Deming
1. Common causes : which inherent to the process as
Machine fails
2. Special causes : Not inherent to the process and should be
defined such as poor performance
3. Natural Variation: producing certain amount of defects
4. Significantly different variation: Discovering exactly
where it is by management.
Note. Deming said :
*80% depends on management
*20% depends on employee

Deming
2.

Deming Philosophy : The quality and the productivity

increases when the process fluctuation Decreases

Deming
** Deming 14 points , I will mention some:
1. Create constancy of purpose to improve product and service.
2. The new age of quality requires a commitment continuously to
improve .
3. Constantly improve , Use the PDCA cycle
4. Dont have silly slogans that mean nothing
5. Supervision must change from chasing to coaching and
support
6. Remove Barriers that prevent employees having pride in their
work , Barriers such as time pressure and focus on profit rather
than quality

Demings cycle

Deming's Seven Deadly

Diseases
*The amount of severe criticism of western management and
organizational practices

1. Lack of constancy of purpose

2. Emphasis on short-term profits : we should focus on the

whole financial period rather than focus at the end
3. Too much staff mobility : it occurs when managers cant define
the actual problems and not learning from them

Deming's Seven Deadly

Diseases

4. Over dependence on figures : particularly financial which

can be messaged to look great in the short term while long
term suffers
Note :
Its a wrong way to focus on short term results , rather than
coaching and helping employees on a long term

Who was Joseph Juran?

_

Joseph Juran is an internationally acclaimed quality guru,

similar to Edwards Deming, strongly influencing Japanese
manufacturing practices. Joseph Jurans belief that quality
does not happen by accident gave rise to the quality
trilogy.

Joseph Juran
Juran Ideas are :
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.

Quality definition
Breakthrough concept
Internal customer
Quality Trilogy
Pareto analysis
Cost of quality
Quality council

Joseph Juran
1. Quality definition : ( Fitness of purpose)
The statement is not that much easy , as it requires asking
many questions like :
. What is the real purpose ?
. Are customer internal or external users ?
. Who are the possible customers ?

Joseph Juran
2. Breakthrough : sequences of process improvements ,
which take two journeys
journey from symptom to cause
journey from cause to remedy
3. Internal customers : quality is associated with customer
satisfaction and dissatisfaction
Satisfaction : occurs when the product has superior
performance and features
Dissatisfaction : when we have defects and deficiencies

Joseph Juran
Customer satisfaction has two dimensions:
Internal : Building the product and the service correctly
External : matching customer requirements and meet their
expectations
4. Quality council : A group of experts who are responsible for
supervising in the application of quality
*Juran Big (Q) : quality doesnt the concern of the production
or the total quality within the organization , but it extends to
link between organization departments, operations and
services .

Joseph Juran
5. Juran quality cost :
*Appraisal

Costs: Costs of activities designed to ensure quality or

uncover defects (inspection)
* Prevention Costs :All TQ training, TQ planning to prevent defects
from occurring
*Failure Costs - costs incurred by defective parts/products or faulty
services.
*Internal Failure Costs : Costs incurred to fix problems that are
detected before the product/service is delivered to the customer.
*External Failure Costs : All costs incurred to fix problems that are
detected after the product/service is delivered to the customer.

Joseph Juran
*

Juran three role models : He assumed that every process

has an internal customer and supplier which linked to each
other through a process to reach the optimum quality .
6. Juran Pareto analysis : A universal problem solving
methodology in which we list the key problems into a table
and ranking them from the highest to the lowest and trying
to solve the deficiencies

Joseph Juran
7. Quality Trilogy :
Quality planning : *determine the organization internal and
external customers * determine customer needs ,
requirements and expectations * design the product to
achieve customer satisfaction * prepare a design to achieve
a good quality
Quality controlling : *determine variation and make decisions
* measure performance and results
*compare the results with the stated objectives .
Quality improvements : * define quality goals * train the
workers * develop a problem solving statement

Who is Philip Crosby?

*

Known as The Fun Uncle of the Quality Revolution

*Where Phil Crosby excellence was in finding a
terminology for quality that mere mortals could understand.
(Dr. Deming and Dr. Juran were the great brains of the
quality revolution)
*He popularized the idea of the "cost of poor quality", that
is, figuring out how much it really costs to do things badly

Crosby

Mr. Crosby defined quality as a conformity to certain

specifications.
Crosby four absolutes are :
1. The definition of quality is conformance to requirements,
it is not appropriate to say good or bad quality as quality
cant be measured but conformance can be
2. The system of the quality is prevention : make a
prevention strategy and it should be supported by SPC in
order to understand the process and discover the default
before occurring

Crosby
3. The performance is zero defects: make the requirement
right from the first time , and make the quality accepted by a
number of standard items .
4. The measurements of quality is the price of NONconformance : because cost quality is the prime motivation
for management .
_CROSBY quality costs :
* Price of NON conformance :(all the costs involved in not
getting the product or a service right .
* Price of conformance : costs for doing things right

Crosby
Crosby has 14 points like Deming , like :
- Management commitment
- Building awareness
- Educating employees
- Quality councils
And others but the main difference between Deming and
crosby is that :
**Deming focus on quality management .
**Crosby focus on action plan and implementation process .

Armand Vallin Feigenbaum

Armand Vallin Feigenbaum

(born 1922) is an American quality control expert and
businessman. Feigenbaum concept's of Total Quality
Control , known today as total quality management ,
combines management methods and economic theory
with organizational principles.

Armand Vallin Feigenbaum

he does not get the great attention that the others
(Deming, Juran, Ishikawa, etc.) get. But, he is special..
Feigenbaum also believed that quality was a way of
operating or a way of life, thus the term "Total Quality."
and believes that quality has become the single most
important force leading to organizational success and
growth.

Armand Vallin Feigenbaum

Feigenbaum defined total Quality control as an effective
system for integrating the quality development, quality
maintenance, and quality improvement efforts of the various
groups in an organization so as to enable production and
service at the most economical levels which allow full
customer satisfaction

Armand Vallin Feigenbaum

Armand is also know for his concept of the "hidden"
plant the idea that so much extra work is performed in
correcting mistakes that there is effectively a hidden
plant within any factory

Armand Vallin Feigenbaum

Accountability for quality: Because quality is
everybody's job, it may become nobody's jobthe idea
that quality must be actively managed and have
visibility at the highest levels of management

Feigenbaum believes that there are three elements to

quality:

* Quality Leadership the management in a company

must always be striving for quality. They must put
items in place that allow them to measure quality,
control quality and improve quality. There must be
constant feedback and oversight of the organization to
assure that quality continues.

Feigenbaum believes that

there are three elements
to quality:
* Modern Quality Technology
the quality function cannot achieve quality without the
help of others. Everyone must be trained and led to
quality.
* Organizational Commitment
everyone in the organization must believe in quality.

David A. Garvin
David A. Garvin is the Professor of
Business Administration at the
Harvard Business School.

"If quality is to be
managed, it must first
be understood."

So he studied one industry which

was active in both the United
States and Japan -- the room air
conditioning industry -analyzing the products to
determine which plants in which
country were turning out the
highest quality. Then he analyzed
every step of the manufacturing
process, to find the differences
that made the difference.

His findings were often

surprising. Some things that
everyone thought guaranteed
higher quality (such as
exhaustive testing) did not,
while some things rarely
mentioned in the literature
(such as the way the factory
dealt with layoffs and seniority,
and the length of production
runs) made a big difference.

The eight dimensions of

quality
David Garvin identified his eight
dimensions of quality which he
maintained covered the meaning of
quality to managers, operators and
customers

The eight dimensions of

quality

Performance: Main operating

characteristics such as power,
sound, speed etc.
Features: The extras that
supplement the main
characteristics
Reliability: How often it breaks
down
Conformance: How close it is to
the design specification or service

The eight dimensions of

quality

Durability: Length of life,

toughness in use, service frequency
etc.
Serviceability: Ease, cost and
friendliness of service.
Aesthetics: Appearance and
impression.
Perceived quality: The feel, finish
and manner in which the customer
is dealt with.

Kaoru Ishikawa

Kaoru Ishikawa
Kaoru Ishikawa was a Japanese
professor and influential quality
management innovator best
known in north America for the
Ishikawa or cause and effect
diagram (also known as fishbone
diagram) that are used in the
analysis of industrial process.

Quality Contributions
User Friendly Quality Control
Fishbone Cause and Effect
Diagram - Ishikawa diagram
Implementation of Quality Circles
Emphasized the 'Internal
Customer'
Shared Vision

Quality Contributions cont.

he was known for the use of the seven basic
tools of quality:
Pareto analysis: which are the big problems?
Cause and effect diagrams: what causes the
problems?
Stratification: how is the data made up?
Check sheets: how often it occurs or is done?
Histograms: what do overall variations look like?
Scatter charts: what are the relationships
between factors?
Process control charts: which variations to
control and how?

Ishikawa diagram
The Ishikawa diagram (or fishbone diagram or also
cause-and-effect diagram) are diagrams, that
shows the causes of a certain event. A common
use of the Ishikawa diagram is in product design.
Also it reveals key relationships among various
variables,

Categories of causes
The 6 M's
Machine, Method, Materials, Maintenance, Man
and Mother Nature (Environment)
(recommended for the manufacturing industry.

The 8 P's
Price, Promotion, People, Processes,
Place/Plant, Policies, Procedures, and Product
(or Service) (recommended for the
administration and service industries).

The 4 S's
Surroundings, Suppliers, Systems, Skills
(recommended for the service industry(

Shigeo Shingo

Shigeo Shingo
Shigeo Shingo, born in Saga City, Japan, was a
Japanese industrial engineer who distinguished
himself as one of the worlds leading experts on
manufacturing practices and The Toyota
Production System. Shingo is known far more in
the West than in Japan.

Shigeo Shingo is strongly associated with Just-inTime manufacturing, and was the inventor of :
1) The single minute exchange of die
(SMED) system, in which set up times are
reduced from hours to minutes, and
2) The Poka-Yoke (mistake proofing)
system. In Poka Yoke, defects are
examined, the production system
stopped and immediate feedback given
so that the root causes of the problem
may be identified and prevented from
occurring again.

Shigeo Shingo
He distinguished between errors, which are
inevitable, and defects, which result when
an error reaches a customer, and the aim of
Poka-Yoke is to stop errors becoming
defects. Defects arise because errors are
made and there is a cause and effect
relationship between the two.

Poke-yoke
Zero quality control is the ideal production
system and this requires both Poka-Yoke and
source inspections.

Gen'ichi Taguchi

Gen'ichi Taguchi

Gen'ichi Taguchi is an engineer and

statistician. Taguchi developed a
methodology for applying statistics to
improve the quality of manufactured goods.
Taguchi methods have been controversial
among some conventional Western
statisticians, but others have accepted
many of the concepts introduced by him as
valid extensions to the body of knowledge.

Taguchi methodology
Taguchi methodology is fundamentally a
prototyping method that enables the
designer to identify the optimal settings to
produce a robust product that can survive
manufacturing time after time, piece after
piece, and provide what the customer
wants. Today, companies see a close link
between Taguchi methods, which can be
viewed along a continuum, and quality
function deployment (QFD).

Taguchi contributions:
Taguchi has made a very influential
contribution to industrial statistics. The key
elements of his quality philosophy are:
Taguchi loss function: used to measure
financial loss to society resulting from poor
quality;
The philosophy of off-line quality control:
designing products and processes so that
they are insensitive to parameters outside
the design engineer's control; and
Innovations in the statistical design of
experiments: notably the use of an outer
array for factors that are uncontrollable in
real life, but are systematically varied in

Off-line quality control

Taguchi realized that the best opportunity to
eliminate variation is during the design of a
product and its manufacturing process and
it consists of 3 stages:

System design;
Parameter design; and
Tolerance design

 System design
This is design at the conceptual level, involving
creativity and innovation.
Parameter design
Once the concept is established, the nominal
values of the various dimensions and design
parameters need to be set. Taguchi's radical
insight was that the exact choice of values
required is under-specified by the performance
requirements of the system. This allows the
parameters to be chosen so as to minimize the
effects on performance arising from variation in
manufacture, environment and cumulative
damage. This is sometimes called robustification.

 Tolerance design
With a successfully completed
parameter design, and an
understanding of the effect that
the various parameters have on
performance, resources can be
focused on reducing and
controlling variation in the critical
few dimensions