Lecture - 04

Course Title:
Advanced Power System Protection

Analysis of Unbalanced Systems

Except for the balanced three-phase fault, faults

result in an unbalanced system.
The most common types of faults are single lineground (SLG) and line-line (LL). Other types are
double line-ground (DLG), open conductor, and
balanced three phase.
The easiest method to analyze unbalanced system
operation due to faults is through the use of
symmetrical components

Analysis of Unbalanced Systems

Symmetrical Components

The key idea of symmetrical component analysis is to decompose

the unbalanced system into three sequence of balanced networks.
The networks are then coupled only at the point of the unbalance
(i.e., the fault)
The three sequence networks are known as the:
positive sequence
negative sequence
zero sequence

Analysis of Unbalanced Systems

Analysis of Unbalanced Systems

Symmetrical Components

Assuming three unbalance voltage phasors, VA, VB and VC

having a positive sequence (abc). Using symmetrical
components it is possible to represent each phasor voltage
as:

Symmetrical Components

Symmetrical Components

Symmetrical Components for n Phases

Mathematically:
Va= Va1+ Va2+ Va3+---------- Van
Vb= Vb1+ Vb2+ Vb3+---------- Vbn
Vn= Vn1+ Vn2+ Vn3+---------- Vnn
Where:

Va, Vb. Vn are unbalanced set of phosors

Va1, Vb1 Vn1 first set of n balanced phasors with an angle 2pi/n (360/n between components
a,b,..n

Vectors
The vectors are instantaneous snapshots of an AC sinusoidal wave,
represented by a straight line and a direction.
A sine wave starts from zero value at 0, reaches its peak value at
90, goes negative after 180 and again reaches back zero at 360.
Straight lines and relative angle positions, which are termed vectors,
represent these values and positions. For a typical sine wave, the
vector line will be horizontal at 0 of the reference point and will be
vertical upwards at 90 and so on and again comes back to the
horizontal position at 360 or at the start of the next cycle.

Impedance
Impedance This is the AC equivalent of resistance in a DC system,
and takes into account the additional effects of reactance. It is
represented by the symbol Z and is the vector sum of resistance
and reactance

Reactance
Capacitance is the electrostatic charge required when energizing the
system. It is represented by the symbol C and is measured in farads.
To convert this to ohms,

Inductive reactance and capacitive reactance oppose each other vectorally;

so to find the net reactance in a system, they must be arithmetically
subtracted. For example, in a system having resistance R, inductance L and
capacitance C, its impedance

Reactance
Reactance is a phenomenon in AC systems brought about by
inductance and capacitance effects of a system.
Energy is required to overcome these components as they react
to the source and effectively reduce the useful power available
to a system.
The energy, which is spent to overcome these components in a
system is thus not available for use by the end user and is
termed useless energy though it still has to be generated by
the source.
Inductance is represented by the symbol L and is a result of
magnetic coupling which induces a back emf opposing that
which is causing it. This back-pressure has to be overcome
and the energy expended is thus not available for use by the
end user and is termed useless energy, as it still has to be
generated. L is normally measured in Henries.

Reactance
When a voltage is applied to a system, which has an impedance
of Z, vectorally the voltage is in phase with Z as per the above
impedance diagram and the current is in phase with the
resistive component.
Accordingly, the current is said to be leading the voltage vector
in a capacitive circuit
and is said to be lagging the voltage vector in an inductive
circuit.

Complex Numbers
Any complex number, such as a + jb , may be represented by a single point p,
plotted on a Cartesian coordinates, in which a is the abscissa on the x axis of real
quantities and b the ordinate on the y axis of imaginary quantities.

Referring to Fig., let r represent the length of the line connecting the point p to the
origin and the angle measured from the x-axis to the line r.
It can be observed that:

a = r cos
b = r sin

Complex Numbers
The angular position of the phasor represents position in time, not space.
A phasor quantity or phasor, provides information about not only the
magnitude but also the direction or angle of the quantity.
When using a compass and giving directions to a house, from a given location, a
distance and direction must be provided.
For example one could say that a house is 10 miles at an angle of 75 degrees
Phasors are written in polar form as:

Y = Y
= Y cos + Yj sin

(Polar Form )
(Rectangular Form)

The j operator
In polar form, j = 190 .
Multiplying by j has the effect of
rotating a phasor 90 without affecting
the magnitude.

The a operator
a-operator is defined as unit
vector at an angle of 120, written
as
a = 1120 .
The operator a2, is also a unit
vector at an angle of 240o,
written a2 = 1240o

Symmetrical Components

Phasor-a or a-operator

Angles b/w phases are

positive in
Anti-Clockwise
rotation

Symmetrical Components

Phasor-a or a-operator

Angles b/w phases are

positive in
Anti-Clockwise
rotation

Vb
= Va. 1120 = aVa

Since, Va, Vb and Vc are

equal in magnitude and
displaced by 120.
Vb and Vc can be
represnted in the form of
Va multiplied by aoperated depending
upon th angle w.r.t Va.

Va

Vc
= Va. 1240 = a2Va

a-operator

Phasor-a or a-operator

Transformation of Vectors

Va0 is the reference voltage, transforming Vb0 and Vc0

w.r.t Va0. Since these are equal in magnitude and no
angle difference. Therefore these are equal, operatora is not required.
Va0 = Va0
Vb0 = Va0
Vc0 = Va0

Va0 = Vb0 = Vc0

Transformation of Vectors

Va1 is the reference voltage, transforming Vb1 and

Vc1 w.r.t Va1 using operator-a

Va1 = Va1
Vb1 = 1( 240)Va1 = a2Va1
Vc1 = 1( 120)Va1 = aVa1

Transformation of Vectors

Va2 is the reference voltage, transforming Vb2 and Vc2

w.r.t Va1 using operator-a
Va2 = Va2
Vb2 = 1( 120o)Va2 = aVa2
Vc2 = 1( 240o)Va2 = a2 Va2

Transformation of Vectors

Note that all the

sequence
components of
other phases are
also converted
now w.r.t. phase
a voltage i.e; Va.

Transformation of Vectors

Note that all the

sequence
components of
other phases are
also converted
now w.r.t. phase
a voltage i.e; Va.

Symmetrical Components

Symmetrical Components

Magnitudes can be
subtracted but not the
angles. Convert to
rectangular coordinates
then calculate.

Symmetrical Components

Calculation of short-circuit
MVA
It is important that we know how to calculate the level of fault
current that will flow under these conditions, so that we can
choose equipment to withstand these faults and isolate the
faulty locations without major damages to the system
A fault can occur immediately after the generator or after a
transformer and depending upon the location of fault, the fault
current could vary.
In the first case, only the source impedance limits the fault
current whereas in the second case the transformer impedance
is an important factor that decides the fault current.

Generally, the worst type of fault that can occur is the three-phase
fault, where the fault currents are the highest. If we can calculate this
current then we can ensure that all equipment can withstand (carry)
and in the case of switchgear, interrupt this current.

Calculation of short-circuit
MVA

Calculation of short-circuit
MVA

X% = %age Impedance = %Z

= P / Zp.u

Calculation of short-circuit
MVA

Calculation of short-circuit
MVA

In an electrical circuit, the impedance limits the

flow of current and Ohms law gives the actual
current.

Alternatively, the voltage divided by current gives

the impedance of the system.

In a three-phase system which generates a 3phase voltage of Ep and where the phase current
is Ip,

Calculation of short-circuit
MVA

Calculation of short-circuit
MVA

Calculation of short-circuit
MVA
Useful formulae Following are the methods adopted to
calculate fault currents in a power system.
Ohmic method: All the impedances are expressed in .
Percentage impedance methods: The impedances are
expressed in percentage with respect to a base MVA.
Per unit method: Is similar to the percentage impedance
method except that the percentages are converted to
equivalent decimals and again expressed to a common
base MVA. For example, 10% impedance on 1 MVA is
expressed as 0.1 pu on the same base.

Calculation of short-circuit
MVA
Ohmic reactance method
In this method, all the reactances components are expressed
in actual ohms and then it is the application of the basic formula
to decide fault current at any location.
It is known that when fault current flows it is limited by the
impedance to the point of fault.
The source can be a generator in a generating station whereas
transformers in a switching station receive power from a remote
station. In any case, to calculate source impedance at HV in :

Calculation of short-circuit
MVA
Ohmic reactance method:
Transformer impedance is expressed in terms of percent
impedance voltage
and is defined as the percentage of rated voltage to be applied
on the primary of a transformer for driving a full load secondary
current with its secondary terminals shorted.
Hence, this impedance voltage forms the main factor to decide
the phase-to-phase or any other fault currents on the secondary
side of a transformer

Z=V/I
Z = KV / KA

Z(in Ohm) = %Z x ( KV^2/MVA )

Calculation of short-circuit Current

Vp/Vs = Np/Ns

Calculation of short-circuit
Current
Percentage reactance method

In this method, the reactance values are expressed in terms

of a common base MVA.
Values at other MVA and voltages are also converted to the
same base, so that all values can be expressed in a common
unit.
Then it is the simple circuit analysis to calculate the fault
current in a system.

It can be noted that these are also extensions of basic formulae.

P = 3 x V x I

XB %

Since

Per - Unit Method

Device parameters tend to fall into a relatively narrow range, making erroneous
values conspicuous.
Using this method all quantities are expressed as ratios of some base value or
values.
The per-unit equivalent impedance of any transformer is the same when referred
to either the primary or the secondary side.
The per-unit impedance of a transformer in a three-phase system is the same
regardless of the type of winding connections (wye-delta, delta-wye, wye-wye, or
delta-delta).
The per-unit method is independent of voltage changes and phase shifts through
transformers where the base voltages in the winding are proportional to the
number of turns in the windings.
Manufactures usually specify the impedance of equipment in per-unit or percent
on the base of its nameplate rating of power (usually kVA) and voltage (V or kV).

Per - Unit Method

The per-unit system is simply a scaling method.

The basic per-unit scaling equation is

Per_unit value =

Actual_Value
Base_Value

The base value always has the same units as the actual value, forcing the perunit value to be dimensionless.

The base value is always a real number, whereas the actual value may be
complex. The subscript pu will indicate a per-unit value.

Per-unit quantities are similar to percent quantities. The ratio in percent is 100
times the ratio in per-unit. For example, a voltage of 70kV on a base of 100kV
would be 70% of the base voltage. This is equal to 100 times the per unit value of
0.7 derived above.

Per - Unit Method

Sbase = power base, in VA. Although in principle Sbase may be selected
arbitrarily, in practice it is typically chosen to be 100 MVA.

Vbase = voltage base in V. Although in principle Vbase is also arbitrary, in

practice Vbase is equal to the nominal line-to-line voltage.

Per - Unit Method

Z = V^2 / P

Per - Unit Method

Per - Unit Method

Manufacturers give impedance of equipment in percent on own base. The
percent value is the per unit value multiplied by 100:

Z% = Zp.u. 100%.
Zp.u = Z% = Z (Actual ohm)
100%
Z (Base Ohms)
Z (Actual Ohms) = Z% x Z(Base ohms)
100
= Z% x [ KV (Base) ]^2
100 [ MVA (Base)]

Per - Unit Method

It is also a common practice to express per-unit values as percentages
(i.e. 1 pu = 100%). (Transformer impedances are typically given in % at
the transformer MVA rating.)
The conversion is simple

Per - Unit Method

It is frequently necessary, particularly for impedance values, to convert from one (old)
base to another (new) base

In most cases the turns ratio of the transformer is equivalent to the system voltages,
and the equipment rated voltages are the same as the system voltages. This
means that the voltage-squared ratio is unity

Per - Unit Method

We can quickly change from one impedance value in ohms, to another

impedance value in ohms by dividing by the old base voltage and
multiplying by the new base voltage in ohms.

Per - Unit Method

Calculating actual values from per-unit
A impedance and voltage of the system is express in per-unit.
Next we need to convert from per-unit to actual amps and volts
by using the base values.

Per - Unit Method

Per - Unit Method

Per - Unit Method

Per - Unit Method

Example:
Consider a system of source impedance 4.48 connected to a 20 MVA
transformer (11/0.4 kV) at 6% impedance. We want to find the fault level at
the transformer secondary.
Solution:
Selecting Pbase as 20 MVA and Vbase as 11 kV and using the above
equations:
Step-1: Calculate Ibase from Pbase and Vbase

Step-2: Calculate Zbase from Ibase and Vbase

Per - Unit Method

Step-3: Calculate p.u impedance of source by dividing actual value of
impedance in ohms to base value of impedance in ohms.

Step-4: Calculate p.u impedance of transformer by applying the formula:

Per - Unit Method

Step-5: Calculate Fault MVA at the point of Fault with the fault current flowing
from source to point of fault.
(There are two impedances in the path, source impedance and
transformer impedance, add them)

Step-4: Calculate fault current from fault MVA by using formula of 3-phase
power for phase voltage and current: P = 3 x V x I instead of 3xVxI Where V
and I are line voltage and currents

Per - Unit Method

Three Phase Fault Example:

Per - Unit Method

Three Phase Fault Example:
Fault flow through parallel branches is given by the ratio of impedances. As
illustrated this can enable fault flows to be found through each branch.

P = 3 x V x I

XB %

Since

P = 3 x V x I

XB %

Since

Per - Unit Method

Transformers and Per Unit System

A transformer is
rated 2000 VA,
200V/400V, and
has an internal
impedance of
j4.0 as seen
from the low
voltage side.

Per - Unit Method

Transformers and Per Unit System

Per - Unit Method

Transformers and Per Unit System

Per - Unit Method

Transformers and Per Unit System

Notice in Table 1 that the transformer per unit impedance is the same, regardless
of to which side of the transformer it is referred.
Again, the conversion complications are absorbed into the base relationships.
In the transformer equivalent circuit the different voltage levels disappear and the
transformer equivalent circuit is reduced to a single impedance:

Per - Unit Method

Per - Unit Method

Per - Unit Method

Balanced and Unbalanced Fault analysis

Symmetrical components are used extensively for fault study calculations.

In these calculations the positive, negative and zero-sequence impedance

networks are either given by the manufacturer or are calculated by the user
using base voltages and base power for their system.

Each of the sequence networks are then connected together in various ways
to calculate fault currents and voltages depending upon the type of fault.

Summary

Summary

Summary

Summary

Summary

P = 3 x V x I

XB %

Since