Topic 5

Chemical Bonding

Learning Outcomes
By the end of this topic, you should be able to:
1.

Demonstrate how to stabilise the noble gas

structure using the octet rule.

2.

Summarise how ions are formed.

3.

Demonstrate how ionic bonds are formed using

the Lewis diagram and chemical formulae.

Learning Outcomes
By the end of this topic, you should be able to:
4.

Demonstrate how covalent bonds are formed using the

dot-cross formula or dash formula.

5.

Compare the structure and properties of ionic

compounds and covalent compounds.

6.

Describe the strength and properties of metallic bonding.

7.

Summarise the intermolecular forces between

molecules.

Electronic Configuration

The Periodic Table

The electronic configuration

The Periodic Table is constructed using the Aufbau

principle, where the atomic orbitals are filled in the
order of increasing energy.

The order in which atomic subshells are filled in a many-electron

atom: 1s < 2s < 2p < 3s < 3p < 4s < 3d <

The electronic configuration

2
1s

Number of electrons that can be filled

6
10

2s

2p

3s

3p

3d

4s
5s
6s
7s

4p
5p
6p
7p

4d
5d
6d
7d

14

4f
5f
6f

5.1
THE STABILITY OF NOBLE GAS
STRUCTURE

The Stability of Noble Gas

Structure

The Stability of Noble Gas

Structure

The noble gases are characterised by completely

filled s and p sub shells.

All these gases except helium (it has 1s2

configuration) have stable s2p6 electron
configuration or eight electrons in their outer most
shell.

5.2
THE OCTET RULE

The Octet Rule

Octet rule defines that atoms tend to gain, lose or

share electrons until they are surrounded by
eight valence electrons.

The Octet Rule

Na atom: 1s22s22p63s1
In order to obtain 8 valence electrons for
stable electron configuration,

the sodium atom sheds one of its electrons in the

3s sub shell.
Sodium ion, Na+, is formed and it has a stable
electron configuration of 1s22s22p6 like the noble
gas, neon.

The Octet Rule

Cl atom: 1s22s22p63s23p5
Cl-

ion: 1s22s22p63s23p6

5.3
THE FORMATION OF IONS

The Formation of Ion

An anion is an ion with a negative charge and it is

formed when an atom gains electrons.

A cation is an ion with a positive charge and it is

formed when an atom loses electrons.

The Formation of Ion

Monoatomic ion is an ion that consists of only one

atom.
Examples: Na+, and chloride ion, Cl-

A polyatomic ion is an ion that contains more than

one atom.
Examples: NH4+, OH-, SO42-

The Formation of Ion

An ion has different chemical and physical

properties from those of the atom from which the ion
is derived.
Sodium atom, Na, is different from the sodium ion,
Na+.

5.4
IONIC BONDS

Ionic Bonds

An ionic bond is formed between ions of opposite

charges.

In forming an ionic bond,

Metal atoms lose valence electrons to form cations.
Non-metal atoms gain electrons to form anions.
The electrons are then transferred from metal
atoms to non-metal atoms.
The cations and anions are attracted to each other
by electrostatic forces forming an ionic bond.

Ionic Bonds

Formation of Ionic Bonds in Magnesium

Chloride

Dot-and-cross Diagram (Lewis Diagram):

Ionic Bonds
Dot-and-cross Diagram (Lewis Diagram)

Valence electrons are electons in the outermost

shell of an atom.

These electrons are important because they are

involved in chemical bonding.

Chemical Formulae of Ionic

Compounds

Structure and Properties of Ionic

Compounds
a)

They are solids with high melting points.

Sodium chloride, NaCl, has a high
melting point of 800C.
It exists in a regular, extended network
of oppositely charged ions, Na+ and Cl-,
in which each Cl- ion is attracted to
many surrounding sodium ions, and
each Na+ ion is attracted to many
surrounding chloride ions.
For sodium chloride to melt, every ionic
attraction in the network must be
overcome and this requires a lot of
energy.

Structure and Properties of Ionic

Compounds
b)

Many are soluble in polar solvents such as water.

c)

Most are insoluble in non-polar solvents such as

benzene, C6H6.

d)

Ionic liquids conduct electricity well.

They contain mobile charged particles or ions.
Ionic compounds dissociate into ions when melted
and are free to move in an electric field, thus
conducting electricity.

Structure and Properties of Ionic

Compounds
e)

They conduct electricity in aqueous solutions.

Ionic compounds dissociate into ions in solution and
are free to move in an electric field, thus conducting
electricity.

f)

They are often formed between a metal and a nonmetal.

5.5
COVALENT BONDS

Covalent Bonds

A covalent bond is a bond that is formed when

atoms share electrons to attain the stable electron
configuration with a duplet or an octet.

Usually, the covalent bonds are formed within or

between non-metal atoms from Groups 15, 16 and
17 of the Periodic Table.

Covalent Bonds

In a covalent bond, each atom contributes an equal

number of electrons for sharing.

Types of covalent bond:

Single bond - a pair of electrons is shared
Double bond - two pairs of electrons are shared
Triple bond - three pairs of electrons are shared
between two atoms.

Covalent Bonds
Molecules of Elements
Hydrogen Molecule
Chlorine Molecule
Oxygen Molecule

Covalent Bonds
Molecules of Compounds
Water Molecule
Ammonia Molecule
Methane Molecule
Carbon Dioxide Molecule

Covalent Bonds
Molecules of Compounds
Water Molecule
Ammonia Molecule
Methane Molecule
Carbon Dioxide Molecule

Covalent Bonds
Molecules of Compounds
Water Molecule
Ammonia Molecule
Methane Molecule
Carbon Dioxide Molecule

Covalent Bonds
Molecules of Compounds
Water Molecule
Ammonia Molecule
Methane Molecule
Carbon Dioxide Molecule

Covalent Bonds
Molecules of Compounds
Water Molecule
Ammonia Molecule
Methane Molecule
Carbon Dioxide Molecule

Covalent Bonds
Polar and Non-polar Covalent Bonds

In covalent bonding, electrons are shared between

two atoms.

The electrons in a covalent bond are equally

shared between the two atoms.

The bond that forms in those electrons is a nonpolar covalent bond.

Examples: Hydrogen, chlorine, oxygen, fluorine, and

nitrogen molecules

Covalent Bonds
Polar and Non-polar Covalent Bonds

Covalent bonds in molecules of compounds such as

the ones in water, ammonia and carbon dioxide in
which electron pairs are shared unequally are
called polar covalent bonds.

Structure and Properties of

Covalent Compounds
a)

They are low melting solids, liquids or even gases.

The covalent bonds between the atoms in a
molecule such as water molecule are relatively
strong.
However, the forces or attraction between the
water molecules are relatively weak.
They require very little energy to break the forces
between the molecules to cause melting and
boiling.

Structure and Properties of

Covalent Compounds
b)

Many are insoluble in polar solvents such as water.

c)

Most are soluble in non-polar solvents such as

benzene, C6H6.

d)

Covalent liquids do not conduct electricity because

they do not contain mobile charged particles or
ions.

Structure and Properties of

Covalent Compounds
e)

Aqueous solutions are usually poor conductors of

electricity because most do not contain mobile
charged particles or ions.

f)

They are often formed between two elements with

similar electronegativities, usually non-metals.

Giant Molecular Compounds

Examples of giant molecular compounds
Diamond
Graphite
Silicon dioxide (SiO2)

Silicon carbide (SiC)

Giant Molecular Compound

Diamond

Electron configuration of carbon: 1s22s22p2

Four valence electrons.
Each carbon atom can form single covalent bonds
with four other carbon atoms.
The structure is tetrahedral with a carbon atom at
the centre and linked to four other carbon atoms at
its corners.

Giant Molecular Compound

Diamond
Physical properties
(i)

High melting and boiling points (almost 4,000C).

The carbon atoms in diamond are strongly held
together by covalent bonds.

(ii)

Hard
This results from the arrangement of the carbon atoms
held together by strong covalent bonds in a uniform
tetrahedral structure.

(iii)

Do not conduct electricity even when molten

It does not contain mobile charged particles or ions.

(iv)

Do not dissolve in water or organic solvents

Giant Molecular Compound

Graphite

The element in graphite is also carbon.

In graphite, the carbon atoms lie in parallel layers,

in which the carbon atoms are covalently combined
in a network of regular hexagons.

These layers are held together by weak forces of

the Van der Waals.

Giant Molecular Compound

Graphite

Giant Molecular Compound

Graphite
Physical properties:
(i)

High melting point and boiling point

The carbon atoms in each layer of graphite are strongly
held together by covalent bonds.

(ii)

Soft substance
The forces between layers of graphite are very weak to
the extent that they can slide readily on each other.

(iii)

Low density
The arrangement of atoms in graphite is in layers with
spaces between the layers.

Giant Molecular Compound

Graphite
Physical properties:
(iv)

Do not dissolve in water or organic solvents

(v)

Good conductor of electricity

Giant Molecular Compound

Silicon dioxide

Silicon dioxide is usually found in the form of sand

and quartz.

Electron arrangement of silicon: 1s22s22p63s23p2

Four valence electrons available for bonding

In silicon dioxide, each silicon atom forms single

covalent bonds with four oxygen atoms.

This arrangement of atoms is built up to form a

giant three-dimensional structure.

Giant Molecular Compound

Silicon dioxide

Giant Molecular Compound

Silicon dioxide
Physical properties:
(i)

High melting point (around 1,700C)

The silicon and oxygen atoms are held strongly by
covalent bonds.

(ii)

Hard
This is due to arrangement of atoms held together by
strong covalent bonds.

(iii)
(iv)

Do not conduct electricity

Do not dissolve in water or organic solvents

5.6
METALLIC BONDS

Strength of Metallic Bonds

X-ray diffraction studies show that each metal

atoms is packed tightly in a crystal lattice.

In a metal, the bonding electrons are delocalised

over the entire crystal.

Each circled positive charge represents the nucleus and

inner electrons of a metal atom.
The grey area surrounding the positive metal ions indicates
the mobile sea of electrons.

Strength of Metallic Bonds

Strength of Metallic Bonds

Delocalised electrons are free to move around.

The metal cations and the electrons are attracted

to each other by strong electrostatic forces
forming metallic bonds that hold the metal atoms
together.

Strength of Metallic Bonds

The strength of the metallic bonds depends on

the number of valence electrons available for
bonding in the metals, resulting in a
corresponding increase in melting points.

Sodium - one valence electron per atom m.p.

97.5C
Chromium - six valence electrons m.p. 1,890C

Conductors and Insulators

Metals Good conductors

There are delocalised electrons surrounding the

metal cations that are mobile and they are free to
move.

The conduction of electricity in metals is due to the

mobility of the electrons.
Crystalline non-metals (such as diamond) Insulators

Non-metals are not surrounded by valence

electrons that are mobile.

5.7
INTERMOLECULAR FORCES

Intermolecular Forces

Intramolecular forces
The forces within a molecule. Intramolecular
forces hold atoms together in a molecule.

Intermolecular forces
The forces between molecules

Van der Waals Forces

Van der Waals forces are weak attractive forces

between molecules.

Three types of Van der Waals forces:

Dipole-dipole forces
London dispersion forces
Hydrogen bonding forces

Van der Waals Forces

Dipole-dipole forces

Polar molecules have dipoles.

When we put polar molecules very close together,

dipole-dipole forces exist between the molecules
The positive end of the dipole of one molecule will
attract the negative end of the dipole of another
molecule.

Van der Waals Forces

London Dispersion Forces

Generally, the electrons in an atom are spread

evenly around the nucleus.

However, at any given instant, the electron

distribution in the atom may change, giving the
atom a temporary dipole moment.

After this occurs, the electrons in a neighbouring

atom may be influenced to also produce a dipole.
The newly formed dipole is called an induced
dipole.

Van der Waals Forces

London Dispersion Forces

The forces of attraction between the temporary

dipole and induced dipole are called the London
dispersion forces.

London dispersion forces are found in all

molecules.

Van der Waals Forces

London Dispersion Forces

Van der Waals Forces

London Dispersion Forces

Van der Waals Forces

London Dispersion Forces

The attraction between non-polar molecules can be

explained similarly.

Using molecular bromine as an example, each

molecule has zero polarity. However, due to the
motion of electrons at any given instant a temporary
dipole would arise that would then induce a dipole in
an adjacent molecule.

Van der Waals Forces

London Dispersion Forces

Dispersion forces usually increase with molar mass

because molecules with larger molar mass tend to
have more electrons, and dispersion forces increase
in strength with the number of electrons.

Furthermore, larger molar mass often means a bigger

atom whose electron distribution is more easily
distributed because the outer electrons are less
tightly held by the nuclei.

Van der Waals Forces

London Dispersion Forces

The melting points of similar substances that

consist of non-polar molecules:
As expected, the melting
point increases as the number
of electrons in the molecule
increases.
Because these are all nonpolar molecules, the only
attractive intermolecular
forces present are the
dispersion forces.

Van der Waals Forces

Hydrogen Bonding

The hydrogen bond is a special type of dipoledipole interaction between the hydrogen atoms
in a polar bond (such as NH, OH, or FH)
and an electronegative O, N, or F atom.

Van der Waals Forces

Hydrogen Bonding

Hydrogen bonding in water and ammonia:

The Effects of Hydrogen Bonding

The density of water and ice

Left: Ice cubes float on water.

Right: Solid benzene sinks to the bottom of liquid
benzene

The three dimensional structure of ice

Each O atom is bonded to four H atoms, two by covalent

bonds and the other two by hydrogen bonds.

The empty space in the structure accounts for the low density
of ice.

The three dimensional structure of ice

The highly ordered three dimensional structure of ice prevents the

molecules from getting too close to one another.

When heat is provided and ice melts, a number of water

molecules are trapped in the cavities of the three-dimensional
structure.

Van der Waals Forces