Ch25 Lesson25 - 2

25.
2 Nuclear Transformations >
Chapter 25
Nuclear Chemistry
25.1 Nuclear Radiation
25.2 Nuclear Transformations

25.3 Fission and Fusion
25.4 Radiation in Your Life
Copyright Pearson Education, Inc., or its affiliates. All Rights Reserved.
25.2 Nuclear Transformations >
CHEMISTRY & YOU
What is the source of radon in homes?

Radon may
accumulate in a
basement that is
not well ventilated.
Test kits are
available to
measure the
levels of radon in a building.
2
25.2 Nuclear Transformations > Nuclear Stability and

Decay
Nuclear Stability and Decay

What determines the type of decay a
radioisotope undergoes?

Decay
The nuclear force is an attractive force

that acts between all nuclear particles that
are extremely close together, such as
protons and neutrons in a nucleus.

Decay
The nuclear force is an attractive force

that acts between all nuclear particles that
are extremely close together, such as
protons and neutrons in a nucleus.
At these short distances, the nuclear force
dominates over electromagnetic repulsions
and holds the nucleus together.
Interpret Data
The stability of a nucleus depends on the

ratio of neutrons to protons.
This graph
shows the
number of
neutrons vs. the
number of
protons for all
known stable
nuclei.
6
Interpret Data

The region of the
graph in which
these points are
located is called
the band of
stability.
Interpret Data

For elements of low
atomic number
(below about 20),
this ratio is about 1.
Above atomic
number 20, stable
nuclei have more
neutrons than
protons.
8

Decay
A nucleus may be unstable and undergo

spontaneous decay for different reasons.
The neutron-to-proton ratio in a
radioisotope determines the type of decay
that occurs.

Decay
Some nuclei are unstable because they

have too many neutrons relative to the
number of protons.
When one of these nuclei decays, a neutron
emits a beta particle (fast-moving electron) from
the nucleus.
10

Decay

number of protons.
the nucleus.
A neutron that emits an electron becomes a proton.
1
0
11
1
1
0
1

Decay

number of protons.
the nucleus.
A neutron that emits an electron becomes a proton.
1
0
1
1
0
1
This process is known as beta emission.

It increases the number of protons while
decreasing the number of neutrons.
12

Decay
Radioisotopes that undergo beta emission

include the following.
66
29
13
Cu
66
30
14
6
14
7
Zn +
N +
0
1
0
1

Decay
Other nuclei are unstable because they

have too few neutrons relative to the
number of protons.
These nuclei increase their stability by
converting a proton to a neutron.
An electron is captured by the nucleus during this
process, which is called electron capture.
59
28
37
18
14
Ni +
0
1
Ar +
0
1
59
27
Co
37
17
Cl

Decay
A positron is a particle with the mass of an

electron but a positive charge.
Its symbol is
0
+1
e.
During positron emission, a proton changes to

a neutron, just as in electron capture.
8
5
15
8
8
4
15
7
Be +
N +
0
+1
0
+1
When a proton is converted to a neutron, the

atomic number decreases by 1 and the number of
neutrons increases by 1.
15

Decay
Nuclei that have an atomic number greater

than 83 are radioactive.
These nuclei have both too many neutrons and
too many protons to be stable.
Therefore, they undergo radioactive decay.
Most of them emit alpha particles.

Alpha emission increases the neutron-to-proton
ratio, which tends to increase the stability of the
nucleus.
16

Decay
In alpha emission, the mass number

decreases by four and the atomic number
decreases by two.
226
88
232
90
17
Ra
222
86
Th
228
88
Rn +
4
2
He
Ra +
4
2
He

Decay
Recall that conservation of mass is an

important property of chemical reactions.
In contrast, mass is not conserved during
nuclear reactions.
An extremely small quantity of mass is
converted into energy released during
radioactive decay.
18
During nuclear decay, if the atomic

number decreases by one but the mass
number is unchanged, the radiation
emitted is
A. a positron.
B. an alpha particle.
C. a beta particle.
D. a proton.
19
During nuclear decay, if the atomic

number decreases by one but the mass
number is unchanged, the radiation
emitted is
A. a positron.
B. an alpha particle.
C. a beta particle.
D. a proton.
20
25.2 Nuclear Transformations > Half-Life
Half-Life
How much of a radioactive sample
remains after each half-life?
21
Interpret Graphs
A half-life (t 1) is the time required for one2

half of the nuclei in a radioisotope sample
to decay to products.
After each halflife, half of the
original
radioactive
atoms have
decayed into
atoms of a new
element.
22

Comparing Half-Lives
Half-lives can be as short as a second or as
long as billions of years.
Half-Lives of Some Naturally Occurring Radioisotopes
Isotope
23
Half-life
Radiation emitted
Carbon-14
5.73 103 years
Potassium-40
1.25 109 years
Radon-222
3.8 days
Radium-226
1.6 103 years
Thorium-234
24.1 days
Uranium-235
7.0 108 years
Uranium-238
4.5 109 years

Scientists use half-lives of some long-term
radioisotopes to determine the age of ancient
objects.
Many artificially produced radioisotopes have
short half-lives, which makes them useful in
nuclear medicine.
Short-lived isotopes are not a long-term
radiation hazard for patients.
24

Uranium-238 decays through a complex series of
unstable isotopes to the stable isotope lead-206.
The age of uraniumcontaining minerals can be
estimated by measuring
the ratio of uranium-238 to
lead-206.
25
Because the half-life of

uranium-238 is 4.5 109
years, it is possible to use
its half-life to date rocks as
old as the solar system.
CHEMISTRY & YOU
Uranium compounds are found in

rocks and in soils that form from these
rocks. How can these uranium
compounds lead to a buildup of radon
in homes and other buildings?
26
CHEMISTRY & YOU
Uranium compounds are found in

rocks and in soils that form from these
rocks. How can these uranium
compounds lead to a buildup of radon
in homes and other buildings?
Radon gas is a product of the decay of

uranium. As the uranium compounds in
the soil beneath homes and buildings
decay, radon is produced and seeps into
the structure.
27

Radiocarbon Dating
Plants use carbon dioxide to produce

carbon compounds, such as glucose.
The ratio of carbon-14 to other carbon isotopes
is constant during an organisms life.
When an organism dies, it stops exchanging
carbon with the environment and its radioactive
14
6 C atoms decay without being replaced.
Archaeologists can use this data to estimate
when an organism died.
28

Exponential Decay Function
You can use the following equation to

calculate how much of an isotope will
remain after a given number of half-lives.
A = A0
1
2
A stands for the amount remaining.

A0 stands for the initial amount.
n stands for the number of half-lives.
29

A = A0
1
2
The exponent n indicates how many times A0

1
must be multiplied by 2 to determine A.
30

This table shows examples in which

n = 1 and n = 2.
Decay of Initial Amount (A0) of
Radioisotope
Half-Life
0
1
2
31
Amount Remaining
A0 ( 12 )0 = A0
1
2 1
1
2 2
A0 ( ) = A0
A0 ( ) = A0
1
2
1
2
1
2
Sample Problem 25.1
Using Half-Lives in Calculations

Carbon-14 emits beta radiation and decays with a
half-life (t 12 ) of 5730 years. Assume that you start
with a mass of 2.00 1012 g of carbon-14.
a. How long is three half-lives?
b. How many grams of the
isotope remain at the end of
three half-lives?
32
Sample Problem 25.1
1 Analyze List the knowns and the unknowns.

To calculate the length of three half-lives,
multiply the half-life by three.
To find the mass of the radioisotope
remaining, multiply the original mass by 12 for
each half-life that has elapsed.
KNOWNS
UNKNOWNS
3 half-lives = ? years
t 1 = 5730 years
2
initial mass (A0) = 2.00 1012 g
mass remaining = ? g
number of half-lives (n) = 3

33
Sample Problem 25.1
2 Calculate Solve for the unknowns.

a. Multiply the half-life of carbon-14 by
the total number of half-lives.
t 12 n = 5730 years 3 = 17,190 years
34
Sample Problem 25.1

b. The initial mass of carbon-14 is
reduced by one-half for each half-life.
So, multiply by 12 three times.
Remaining mass = 2.00 10
12
1
1
1
g 2 2 2
= 0.250 1012 g
= 2.50 1013 g
35
Sample Problem 25.1

b. You can get the same answer by
using the equation for an exponential
decay function.
()
A = A0
()
g) ( )
1 n
12
2 = (2.00 10 g)
= (2.00 10
12
1 3
2
1
8
= 0.250 1012 g
= 2.50 1013 g
36
Sample Problem 25.1
3 Evaluate Do the results make sense?

The mass of carbon-14 after three half-lives
should be one-eighth of the original mass.
If you divide 2.5 1013 g by 2.00 1012 g,
you will get 12.5%, or 18 .
37
The half-life of phosphorus-32 is

14.3 days. How many milligrams of
phosphorus-32 remain after 100.1
days if you begin with 2.5 mg of the
radioisotope?
38
The half-life of phosphorus-32 is

14.3 days. How many milligrams of
phosphorus-32 remain after 100.1
days if you begin with 2.5 mg of the
radioisotope?
1 half-life
n = 100.1 days 14.3 days = 7 half-lives
()
A = A0
39
()
( ) = 2.0 10
1 7
2
1
= (2.5 mg) 128
1 n
2 = (2.5 mg)
mg
25.2 Nuclear Transformations > Transmutation Reactions
Transmutation Reactions
What are two ways in which
transmutation can occur?
40
For thousands of years, alchemists tried

to change lead into gold.
What they wanted to achieve is
transmutation, or the conversion of an atom
of one element into an atom of another
element.
41
Transmutation can occur by radioactive

decay, or when particles bombard the
nucleus of an atom.
The particles may be protons, neutrons,
alpha particles, or small atoms.
42
Ernst Rutherford performed the earliest

artificial transmutation in 1919.
He bombarded nitrogen gas with alpha
particles.
14
4
18
7N +
2 He
9F
Nitrogen-14
Alpha
particle
Fluorine-18
The unstable fluorine atoms quickly decay to

form a stable isotope of oxygen and a proton.
18
9
Fluorine-18
43
17
8
O +
Oxygen-17
1
1
Proton
Rutherfords experiment eventually led to

the discovery of the proton.
1
1
Proton
4
2
He
Alpha
particle
14
7
Nitrogen
atom
18
9
Unstable
fluorine atom
17
8
Oxygen
He and other scientists noticed a pattern as they did

different transmutation experiments. Hydrogen nuclei
were emitted.
Scientists realized that these hydrogen nuclei (protons)
must have a fundamental role in atomic structure.
44
James Chadwicks discovery of the

neutron in 1932 also involved a
transmutation experiment.
Neutrons were produced when beryllium-9
was bombarded with alpha particles.
9
4
Be +
Beryllium-9
45
4
2
He
Alpha
particle
12
6
C +
1
0
Carbon-12 Neutron
Elements with atomic numbers above 92,

the atomic number of uranium, are called
transuranium elements.
None of these elements occurs in nature.
All of them are radioactive.
All transuranium elements undergo
transmutation.
46

Transuranium elements are synthesized in nuclear
reactors and nuclear accelerators.
Reactors produce beams of lowenergy particles.
Accelerators are used to increase
the speed of bombarding
particles to very high speeds.
The European Organization for
Nuclear Research, CERN, has
a number of accelerators. The
figure at right shows CERNs
largest accelerator.
47

When uranium-238 is bombarded with the relatively
slow neutrons from a nuclear reactor, some uranium
nuclei capture these neutrons. The product is uranium239.
238
1
239
92
U +
92
Uranium-239 is radioactive and emits a beta particle.

The other product is an isotope of the artificial
radioactive element neptunium (atomic number 93).
239
92
239
93
Np +
0
1
Neptunium is unstable and decays, emitting a beta

particle and a second artificial element, plutonium
(atomic number 94).
239
93
48
Np
239
94
Pu +
0
1
Scientists in Berkeley, California,

synthesized the first two artificial elements
in 1940.
Since that time, more than 20 additional
transuranium elements have been produced
artificially.
49
Which of the following always changes

when transmutation occurs?
A. The number of electrons

B. The mass number
C. The atomic number
D. The number of neutrons
50
Which of the following always changes

when transmutation occurs?
A. The number of electrons

B. The mass number
C. The atomic number
D. The number of neutrons
51
25.2 Nuclear Transformations > Key Concepts
The neutron-to-proton ratio in a

radioisotope determines the type of decay
that occurs.
After each half-life, half of the original
radioactive atoms have decayed into atoms
of a new element.
Transmutation can occur by radioactive
decay, or when particles bombard the
nucleus of an atom.
52
25.2 Nuclear Transformations > Key Equation
A = A0
53
1
2
25.2 Nuclear Transformations > Glossary Terms

nuclear force: an attractive force that acts
between all nuclear particles that are
extremely close together, like protons and
neutrons in a nucleus
band of stability: the location of stable nuclei
on a neutron-vs.-proton plot
positron: a particle with the mass of an
electron but a positive charge
54
25.2 Nuclear Transformations > Glossary Terms
half-life: the time required for one-half of the

nuclei of a radioisotope sample to decay to
products
transmutation: the conversion of an atom of
one element to an atom of another element
transuranium elements: any elements in the
periodic table with atomic number above 92,
the atomic number of uranium
55
BIG IDEA
Electrons and the Structure of Atoms

Unstable atomic nuclei decay by emitting
alpha or beta particles.
Often gamma rays are emitted.
56
END OF 25.2
57

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25.

2 Nuclear Transformations >

25.2 Nuclear Transformations

Copyright Pearson Education, Inc., or its affiliates. All Rights Reserved.

25.2 Nuclear Transformations >

CHEMISTRY & YOU

What is the source of radon in homes?

Copyright Pearson Education, Inc., or its affiliates. All Rights Reserved.

25.2 Nuclear Transformations > Nuclear Stability and

Nuclear Stability and Decay

Copyright Pearson Education, Inc., or its affiliates. All Rights Reserved.

25.2 Nuclear Transformations > Nuclear Stability and

The nuclear force is an attractive force

Copyright Pearson Education, Inc., or its affiliates. All Rights Reserved.

25.2 Nuclear Transformations > Nuclear Stability and

The nuclear force is an attractive force

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25.2 Nuclear Transformations >

The stability of a nucleus depends on the

Copyright Pearson Education, Inc., or its affiliates. All Rights Reserved.

25.2 Nuclear Transformations >

The stability of a nucleus depends on the

Copyright Pearson Education, Inc., or its affiliates. All Rights Reserved.

25.2 Nuclear Transformations >

The stability of a nucleus depends on the

Copyright Pearson Education, Inc., or its affiliates. All Rights Reserved.

25.2 Nuclear Transformations > Nuclear Stability and

A nucleus may be unstable and undergo

Copyright Pearson Education, Inc., or its affiliates. All Rights Reserved.

25.2 Nuclear Transformations > Nuclear Stability and

Some nuclei are unstable because they

Copyright Pearson Education, Inc., or its affiliates. All Rights Reserved.

25.2 Nuclear Transformations > Nuclear Stability and

Some nuclei are unstable because they

Copyright Pearson Education, Inc., or its affiliates. All Rights Reserved.

25.2 Nuclear Transformations > Nuclear Stability and

Some nuclei are unstable because they

This process is known as beta emission.

Copyright Pearson Education, Inc., or its affiliates. All Rights Reserved.

25.2 Nuclear Transformations > Nuclear Stability and

Radioisotopes that undergo beta emission

Copyright Pearson Education, Inc., or its affiliates. All Rights Reserved.

25.2 Nuclear Transformations > Nuclear Stability and

Other nuclei are unstable because they

Copyright Pearson Education, Inc., or its affiliates. All Rights Reserved.

25.2 Nuclear Transformations > Nuclear Stability and

A positron is a particle with the mass of an

During positron emission, a proton changes to

When a proton is converted to a neutron, the

Copyright Pearson Education, Inc., or its affiliates. All Rights Reserved.

25.2 Nuclear Transformations > Nuclear Stability and

Nuclei that have an atomic number greater

Most of them emit alpha particles.

Copyright Pearson Education, Inc., or its affiliates. All Rights Reserved.

25.2 Nuclear Transformations > Nuclear Stability and

In alpha emission, the mass number

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25.2 Nuclear Transformations > Nuclear Stability and

Recall that conservation of mass is an

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25.2 Nuclear Transformations >

During nuclear decay, if the atomic

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