ECE 333

Green Electric Energy

Lecture 22
Sun as Resource, PV

Professor Tom Overbye

Department of Electrical and
Computer Engineering
 Announcements

• Start reading Chapter 7

• Homework 9 is 6.12, 6.14, 6.15. It doesn’t need to be turned in but should be
completed before the test. Kate will post solutions by next Tuesday.
• Exam 2 is Thursday November 19 in class. You can bring in your old note sheet and
one new notes sheet. Kate is posting exam 2 from last semester. Test covers up
through all of wind, but not solar.
 The Sun’s Position in the Sky

• Another perspective-

Solar declination

Figure 7.6

• Predict where the sun will be in the sky at any time

• Pick the best tilt angles for photovoltaic (PV) panels
 Solar Noon and Collector Tilt

• Solar noon – sun is

directly over the local
line of longitude
• Rule of thumb for the
Northern Hemisphere - a
south facing collector
tilted at an angle equal to
the local latitude
Figure 7.8
• During solar noon, the sun’s rays are
perpendicular to the collector face
 Altitude Angle βN at Solar Noon

• Altitude angle at solar noon βN – angle between the

sun and the local horizon
β N = 90° − L + δ (7.7)
• Zenith – perpendicular axis at a site

Figure 7.9
 Example 7.2 – Tilt of a PV Module

• Find the optimum tilt angle for a south-facing PV

module located at in Tucson (latitude 32.1˚) at solar
noon on March 1
• From Table 7.1, March 1 is day n = 60
 Example 7.2 – Tilt of a PV Module

• The solar declination δ is

 360   360 
δ = 23.45sin  ( n − 81)  = 23.45sin  ( 60 − 81)  = -8.3°
 365   365 
• The altitude angle is
β N = 90° − L + δ = 90° − 32.1° − 8.3° = 49.6°

• To make the sun’s rays perpendicular to the panel,

we need to tilt the panel by
tilt = 90° − β N = 40.4°
 Solar Position at Any Time of Day

• Described in terms of altitude angle β and azimuth angle

of the sun ϕS
• β and ϕS depend on latitude, day number, and time of day
• Azimuth angle (ϕS ) convention
– positive in the morning when sun is in the east
– negative in the evening when sun is in the west
– reference in the Northern Hemisphere (for us) is true south
• Hours are referenced to solar noon
Altitude Angle and Azimuth Angle

Altitude Angle

Azimuth Angle

Figure 7.10
 Altitude Angle and Azimuth Angle

• Hour angle H- the number of degrees the earth must rotate before sun will be over your
line of longitude
• If we consider the earth to rotate at 15˚/hr, then

 15° 
hour angle H =   ⋅ ( hours before solar noon ) (7.10)
 hour 
• At 11 AM solar time, H = +15˚ (the earth needs to rotate 1 more hour)
• At 2 PM solar time, H = -30˚
 Altitude Angle and Azimuth Angle

sin β = cos L cos δ cos H + sin L sin δ (7.8)

cos δ sin H
sin φS = (7.9)
cos β
• H = hour angle
• L = latitude (degrees)
• Test to determine if the angle magnitude is less than or
greater than 90˚ with respect to true south-
tan δ
if cos H ≥ , then φS ≤ 90 °, else φS > 90 ° (7.11)
tan L
 Example 7.3 – Where is the Sun?

• Find altitude angle β and azimuth angle ϕS at 3 PM solar time in Boulder, CO

(L = 40˚) on the summer solstice

• At the solstice, we know the solar declination δ ˚ = 23.45

• Hour angle H is found from (7.10)

 15° 
H =  ⋅ ( -3 h ) = −45°
• The altitude angle is found 
from 
h(7.8)

sin β = cos 40 cos 23.45cos ( −45) + sin 40sin 23.45 = 0.7527

β = sin −1 ( 0.7527 ) = 48.8°
Example 7.3 – Where is the Sun?

cos 23.45° sin ( −45° )

sin φS = = -0.9848
cos 48.8°

φS = sin −1 ( -0.9848) = −80°

φS = 180 -sin −1 ( -0.9848) = 260° or − 100°

tan δ tan 23.45°

cos H = cos ( −45° ) = 0.707 ≥ = = 0.517
tan L tan 40°
φS = − 80° (80° west of south)
 Sun Path Diagrams for Shading
Analysis
• Now we know how to locate the sun in the sky at
any time
• This can also help determine what sites will be in
the shade at any time
• Sketch the azimuth and altitude angles of trees,
buildings, and other obstructions
• Sections of the sun path diagram that are covered
indicate times when the site will be in the shade
 Sun Path Diagram for Shading
Analysis
• Trees to the southeast, small building to the
southwest
• Can estimate the amount of energy lost to shading

Figure 7.15
 California Solar Shade Control Act

• The shading of solar collectors has been an area of legal and

legislative concern (e.g., a neighbor’s tree is blocking a solar
panel)
• California has the Solar Shade Control Act (1979) to address
this issue
– No new trees and shrubs can be placed on neighboring property that
would cast a shadow greater than 10 percent of a collector absorption
area between the hours of 10 am and 2 pm.
– Exceptions are made if the tree is on designated timberland, or the tree
provides passive cooling with net energy savings exceeding that of the
shaded collector
– First people were convicted in 2008 because of their redwoods
 The Guilty Trees were Subject to
Court Ordered Pruning

Source: NYTimes, 4/7/08

 Solar Time vs. Clock Time

• Most solar work deals only in solar time (ST)

• Solar time is measured relative to solar noon
• Two adjustments –
– For a longitudinal adjustment related to time zones
– For the uneven movement of the earth around the sun
• Problem with solar time –two places can only have the same solar
time is if they are directly north-south of each other
• Solar time differs 4 minutes for 1˚ of longitude
• Clock time has 24 1-hour time zones, each spanning 15˚ of longitude
World Time Zone Map

Source: http://aa.usno.navy.mil/graphics/TimeZoneMap0802.pdf
US Local Time Meridians (Table
7.4)

Time Zone Local Time Meridian

Eastern 75˚
Central 90˚
Mountain 105˚
Pacific 120˚
Eastern Alaska 135˚
Alaska and Hawaii 150˚
 Solar Time vs. Clock Time

• The earth’s elliptical orbit causes the length of a solar day to vary throughout the year
• Difference between a 24-h day and a solar day is given by the Equation of Time E

E = 9.87 sin 2 B − 7.53B − 1.5sin B ( minutes) (7.12)

360
• n is the day number B= ( n-81) (degrees) (7.13)
364
 Solar Time vs. Clock Time

• Combining longitude correction and the Equation of Time we get the following:

Solar Time (ST) = Clock Time (CT) +

4 min
( LT Meridian − Local Longitude ) +E (min)
degree
• CT – clock time (7.14)
• ST – solar time
• LT Meridian – Local Time Meridian
• During Daylight Savings, add one hour to the local time
 Example 7.5 – Solar Time vs.
Local Time
• Find Eastern Daylight Time for solar noon in
Boston (longitude 71.1˚ W) on July 1

• July 1 corresponds to n = 182

• From the Equation of Time (7.12) and (7.13) we
obtain
360 360
B= ( n− 81) = (182 − 81) = 99.89 °
364 364
E = 9.87sin ( 2 B) − 7.53cos( B) − 1.5sin( B) = − 3.5 min
 Example 7.5 – Solar Time vs.
Local Time
• The local time meridian for Boston is 75˚, so the
difference is 75 ˚-71.7 ˚, and we know that each degree
corresponds to 4 minutes
• Using (7.14)

CT = ST − 4 ( min/ °) ( 75 ° − 71.1 °) − ( −3.5 min)

CT = 12 : 00 − 12.1min = 11: 49.9 AM EST
• But we need to adjust it for Daylight Savings, so add 1
hour

CT = 12 : 49.9 AM EDT
Sunrise and Sunset

sin β = cos L cos δ cos H + sin L sin δ (7.8)

sin β = cos L cos δ cos H + sin L sin δ = 0 (7.15)
sin L sin δ
cos H = − = − tan Ltanδ (7.16)
cos L cos δ
Hour angle of sunrise H SR = cos −1 ( − tan Ltanδ ) (7.17)

H SR
Sunrise (geometric) = 12 : 00 − (7.18)
15° / h
 Sunrise and Sunset

• Weather service definition is the time at which the upper

limb (top) of the sun crosses the horizon, but the geometric
sunrise is based on the center
• There is also atmospheric refraction
• Adjustment factor Q

3.467
Q= (min) (7.19)
cos L cos δ sin H SR
• Subtract this from the geometric sunrise
 Clear Sky Direct-Beam Radiation

• Direct beam radiation IBC – passes in a straight line

through the atmosphere to the receiver
• Diffuse radiation IDC – scattered by molecules in the
atmosphere
• Reflected radiation IRC
– bounced off a
surface near the
reflector

Figure 7.18
 Extraterrestrial Solar Insolation I0

• Starting point for clear sky radiation calculations

• I0 passes perpendicularly through an imaginary surface outside of the earth’s
atmosphere
I0 depends on distance between earth and sun and on intensity of the sun which is
•
fairly predictable
Ignoring sunspots, I0 can be written as
•

• SC =Isolar  = 1.377 kW/m2  360n  

constant
= SC ⋅ 1 + 0.034 cos   (W/m2 ) (7.20)
• n = day0 number   365 
 
These changes are due
to the variation in
earth’s distance from
the sun
 Extraterrestrial Solar Insolation I0

• In one year, less than half of I0 reaches earth’s

surface as a direct beam
• On a sunny, clear day, beam radiation may exceed
70% of I0

Figure 7.19
 Attenuation of Incoming
Radiation
• Can treat attenuation as an exponential decay
function
I B = Ae − km (7.21)

• IB = beam portion of the radiation that reaches the

earth’s surface
• A = apparent extraterrestrial flux
• k = optical depth
• m = air mass ratio from (7.4)
 Attenuation of Incoming
Radiation

I B = Ae − km (7.21)
From curve fits of the table data, A and k are approximately
 360 
A = 1160 + 75sin  ( n − 275)  (W/m2 ) (7.22)
 365 
 360 
k = 0.174 + 0.035sin  ( n − 100)  (7.23)
 365 
Solar Insolation on a Collecting
Surface

I BC = I B cos θ
Solar Insolation on a Collecting
Surface, cont.

 1 − cos Σ 
I RC = ρ ( I BH + I DH )  
 2 
 Tracking Systems

• Most residential solar systems have a fixed mount, but

sometimes tracking systems are cost effective
• Tracking systems are either single axis (usually with a
rotating polar mount [parallel to earth’s axis of rotation),
or two axis (horizontal [altitude, up-down] and vertical
[azimuth, east-west]
• Ballpark figures for tracking system benefits are about
20% more for a single axis, and 25 to 30% more for a two
axis
 Monthly and Annual Insolation

• For a fixed system the total annual output is somewhat

insensitive to the tilt angle, but there is a substantial
variation in when the most energy is generated
US Annual Insolation
 Worldwide Annual Insolation

In 2007 worldwide PV peak was about 7800 MW, with almost half
(3860 MW) in Germany, 1919 MW in Japan, 830 in USA and
655 in Spain
 Photovoltaics (PV)
Photovoltaic definition- a material or device that is capable
of converting the energy contained in photons of light into an
electrical voltage and current University of Illinois 2009
"Sojourner" Solar Decathalon House – 2nd
exploring Mars, place overall
1997

Rooftop PV
modules on a
village health
center in West
Bengal, India http://www.solardecathlon.uiuc.edu/gallery.html#
http://www1.eere.energy.gov/solar/pv_use.html
 PV History

• Edmund Becquerel (1839)

• Adams and Day (1876)
• Albert Einstein (1904)
• Czochralski (1940s)
• Vanguard I satellite (1958)

• Today…

Cost/Capacity Analysis
(Wp is peak Watt)

http://www.nrel.gov/pv/pv_manufacturing/cost_capacity.html
PV System Overview
(slides from Prof. Angus Rockett)
• Solar cell is a diode
• Photopower coverted to DC Shadows
• Shadows & defects convert
generating areas to loads
• DC is converted to AC by an
inverter
• Loads are unpredictable
• Storage helps match
generation to load
 Pat Chapman Solar Example

• When Prof. Chapman built a new house in Urbana in 2007 he

added some solar PV.
• His system has 14 modules
with 205 W each, for a
total of 2870W. He has
a 3300 W inverter.
• Total cost was about $27,000,
but tax credits reduced it
to $16,900.
• He should be getting about 3700 kWh per year

Source: www.patrickchapman.com/solar.htm
Solar Intensity: Atmospheric Effects

Sun photosphere

Extraterestrial
sunlight (AM0)
Intensity

Sunlight at sea level

at 40° N Lattitude at
noon (AM1.5)
“AM” means “air mass”
 Some General Issues in PV
• The device
• Efficiency, cost, manufacturability
automation, testing

• Encapsulation
• Cost, weight, strength,
yellowing, etc.

• Accelerated lifetime testing

• 30 year outdoor test is difficult
• Damp heat, light soak, etc.

• Inverter & system design

• Micro-inverters, blocking diodes, reliability
 What are Solar Cells? Load

-
+

• Solar cells are diodes

n-type

p-type
• Light (photons) generate free
carriers (electrons and holes)
which are collected by the Open-circuit
electric field of the diode voltage
junction Voltage
• The output current is a fraction

Current
of this photocurrent Maximum
Power Point
• The output voltage is a
fraction of the diode built-in
voltage Short-circuit
current
Standard Equivalent Circuit Model
Where does the power go?

Series
resistance
(minimize)
Photocurrent

resistance
(maximize)
Diode

Shunt

Load
source
 Energy-band Diagrams

• Electrons in solids fill states until you run out of them

• Conduction band – top band, here electrons contribute to current flow,
empty at absolute zero for semiconductors
• Valence band – highest energy band where electrons are normally
present at absolute zero
• An electron must acquire the band gap energy to jump across to the
conduction band, measured in electron-volts eV
• Silicon band gap energy is 1.12 eV
 Energy-band Diagrams
• The probability of finding an electron in a state is the
Fermi distribution
• The Fermi energy is the energy at which the
probability of finding an electron is 0.5

http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/c/c7/Isolator
-metal.svg
 Electrons and Holes

• Electrons create holes when they jump to the

conduction band
• Electrons can move in the conduction band
• Can talk about holes moving also (the way electrical
engineers are used to thinking – like how current
moves from + to -)
• Photons with enough energy create hole-electron
pairs in a semiconductor
 Photons

• Photons are characterized by their wavelength

(frequency) and their energy

c = λv (8.1)
hc
E = hv = (8.2)
v

Table 8.2 Band Gap and Cut-off Wavelength Above Which Electron
Excitation Doesn’t Occur
Quantity Si GaAs CdTe InP
Band gap (eV) 1.12 1.42 1.5 1.35
Cut-off wavelength (μm) 1.11 0.87 0.83 0.92
 Silicon Solar Cell Max Efficiency

• Upper bound on the efficiency of a silicon solar cell:

• Band gap: 1.12 eV, Wavelength: 1.11 μm

• This means that photons with wavelengths longer than

1.11 μm cannot send an electron to the conduction band.
• Photons with a shorter wavelength but more energy than
1.12 eV dissipate the extra energy as heat
 Silicon Solar Cell Max Efficiency

• For an Air Mass Ratio

of 1.5, 49.6% is the
maximum possible
fraction of the sun’s
energy that can be
collected with a silicon
solar cell
 Limitations to Solar Cell Performance

Analysis for a 24%-efficient Si solar cell

Energy (eV) All photon energy above Voc is lost.

Unused
Photons 19%
Maximum energy
collected = Egap
Intensity (mW/m2-µ m)

31% Loss for

Energy
above Egap

Other losses:
Voc < Egap 16%
Absorption
Fill Factor 5% Collection
Other Losses
Photons used 5% Reflection
Usable power Series R
24%
Shunts
 Review of Diodes

• Two regions: “n-type” which

donate electrons and “p-type”
which accept electrons
• p-n junction- diffusion of electrons
and holes, current will flow readily
in one direction (forward biased)
but not in the other (reverse
biased), this is the diode
 Review of Diodes

• Making a connection from an n-type semiconductor (doped

with impurities with extra electrons) to a p-type material
(extra holes) induces an electric field
• This field is what separates charges generated by light
• The depletion width is the region where carriers have
diffused

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Pn-junction-equilibrium.png
The p-n Junction Diode

Voltage-Current (VI) characteristics for a diode

I d = I 0 (e qVd / kT -1) (8.3)
I d = I 0 (e38.9Vd -1) (at 25°C)

Figure 8.15
 Current in the Device:

Diode (dark) current: Photocurrent:

J0: Reverse saturation current

V: Junction voltage
k: Boltzmann constant
T: Temperature (K) Voltage (V)
a: Ideality factor
1: ideal
2: non-ideal
Calculating Cell Parameters:

Open circuit voltage from current equation at

zero current:

Solving for Voc gives:

Notes: L,L: Minority carrier diffusion lengths

p n

This is for an ideal diode!! p , n : Minority carrier concentrations

n p

gop is proportional to light flux

V increases logarithmically with light flux.
 Calculating Cell Parameters

I +
+ V Load
PV -
-
• The previous equations in terms of the book’s notation
are (just use the book equations and notation when
working your problems)
I = I SC − I 0 (e qV / kT -1) (8.8)
• Setting I to zero, the open circuit voltage is

kT  I SC 
VOC = ln  + 1 (8.9)
q  I0 
PV Equivalent Circuit

V
I = ( I SC − Id ) − (8.12)
RP
Vd

Figure 8.22. PV Cell with parallel resistance

Vd = V + I ⋅ RS (8.14)
 PV Equivalent Circuit

• Considering both RS and RP

  q ( V + I ⋅ RS )    V + I ⋅ RS 
I = I SC − I 0 exp   −1 -  (8.17)
  kT    RP 

Figure 8.26. Equivalent circuit for a PV Cell including series and parallel resistance
Series and Shunt Resistance Effects:
Algebraically:

J =JL +J0 e [ (qV +JR series )/ akT

−1 −]
Rshunt
V

Series resistance drops Equivalent Circuit

some voltage (reduces Series
output voltage) resistance

(minimize)

Shunt resistance drops Photocurrent

resistance

(maximize)
Diode
some current (reduces

Shunt
source

Load
output current)

Voltage & Current are coupled

 Series and Shunt Resistance Effects

• Parallel (RP) – current

drops by ΔI=V/RP

Figure 8.23

• Series (RS) – voltage drops

by ΔV=IRS

Figure 8.25
 Fill Factor and
Cell Efficiency
Fill Factor Jmax •Vmax
(FF) =
Pabs = Jsc •Voc

“AM 1.5” Incident

Solar Power JSC
~100 mW/cm2

Jsc •Voc •FF Jmax •Vmax

Cell
Efficiency Incident = Incident
(η ) = Power Power
Sizes important to PV
• Absorption coefficient:
Thicker is better.
You need at least 2 absorption
lengths even with a back
surface reflector.
• Carrier diffusion length:
Thinner is better.
Need to be able to diffuse to
the contacts.
• Optimal performance: Material Lifetime (υ sec) Mobility (cm2/V-sec) Ln Lp (υ m)
10 nm for organics
x-Si ~ 100 1350 480 590 340
1-2 microns for CdTe, CIS, a-
CdTe ~ 0.001 3 500 0.12 1.6
Si:H GaAs ~ 0.1 8500 400 50 10
2-10 microns for GaAs CuInSe2 ~ 0.01 800 200 3 1
20-100 microns for Si, Ge a-Si ~ 0.001 1 0.05
organics ~ 0.001 10-3 0.002
Absorption of Light in the Solar Cell

Light trapping can be used to extend the

path length of the light in the absorber,
allowing a thinner layer to be used.

No light trapping Back surface Front & back

absorption or patterned to surface patterned
reflection at reflect & scatter to refract &
back surface light scatter light