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Contents
Review of Maxwells equations and Lorentz Force Law
Motion of a charged particle under constant
Electromagnetic fields
Relativistic transformations of fields
Electromagnetic energy conservation
Electromagnetic waves
Waves in vacuo
Waves in conducting medium
Reading
J.D. Jackson: Classical Electrodynamics
H.D. Young and R.A. Freedman: University
Gradient is normal to
surfaces
=constant
For a vector F F1 , F2 , F3 ,
F1 F2 F3
divergence : F
x
y
z
F3 F2 F1 F3 F2 F1
curl : F
z z
x x y
y
( F G) G F F G
0, F 0
2
( F ) ( F ) F
Stokes
Theorem
F dS F d r
S
dS n dS
Oriented
boundary C
Divergence or Gauss
Theorem
F dV F dS
V
What is
Electromagnetism?
The study of Maxwells equations, devised in 1863 to
Maxwells Equations
Relate Electric and Magnetic fields generated
by charge and current distributions.
E = electric field
D = electric displacement
H = magnetic field
B = magnetic flux density
= charge density
j = current density
0 (permeability of free space) = 4 10-7
0 (permittivity of free space) = 8.854 10-12
c (speed of light) = 2.99792458 108 m/s
In vacuum D 0 E , B 0 H , 0 0 c 2 1
B 0
B
E
t
D
H j
t
E
0
E
0
1
E dV E d S
0
V
S
Q
dV
0
V
E
E
dS
sphere
q
r
4 0 r 3
q
4 0
dS q
r2 0
sphere
B 0
B 0
B dS 0
B
E
t
Maxwells 3rd
Equation
E dS t dS
S
d
d
E dl B dS
dt S
dt
C
(for a fixed circuit C)
The electromotive
E dl force round a circuit
is proportional to the rate of
change
offlux
B dof
S magnetic field,
1 E
B 0 j 2
c t
B 0 j
B dl B dS 0 j dS 0 I
Ampre
0 I
B
4
Biot
dl r
r3
0 I
For a straight line current B
2 r
A
, so
0
dt
dt
E
Displacement current density isjd 0
t
0 A
Closed loop
E
B 0 j j d 0 j 0 0
t
12
Consistency with
Charge Conservation
Charge conservation:
Total current flowing out of a
region equals the rate of
decrease of charge within the
volume.
d
j
d
S
dV
dt
j dV dV
t
j
0
t
1
B 0 j 2 E
c t
0 0 j 0 0
t 0
0 j
t
Maxwells
Equations in Vacuum
In vacuum
1
D 0 E , B 0 H , 0 0 2
c
Source-free equations:
B 0
B
E
0
t
Source equations
E
0
1 E
B 2
0 j
c t
1
E dS 0
B dS 0
dV
d
d
E dl dt B dS dt
1 d
B dl 0 j dS c 2 dt E dS
14
r r0
B0 sin t
0
Bz
Also from
r r0
r r0
B
E
t
r r0
d
r 2 B0 sin t r 2 B0 cos t
dt
1
E B0 r cos t
2
2 rE
d
r02 B0 sin t r02 B0 cos t
dt
r02 B0
E
cos t
2r
2 rE
1 E
then gives current density necessary
B 0 j 2
c dt to sustain the fields
f q Ev B
fd E j B
dP
F
d
3-vector component:
v f
,
c
1 dE dp
f
,
c dt dt
d
m0 v f q E v B
dt
16
d
d
m0 v f q E v B m0 v q v B
dt
dt
d
q
v v
v v B 0
dt
m0
But
So
d
d
v v
dt
dt
d
0 is constant v is constant
dt
v 2 c 2 2 1
d
q
B v
Bv B 0
dt
m0
d
B v 0, v// constant
dt
No acceleration
with a magnetic
field
dv
q
v B
dt m0
v2
q
v B
m0
v qB
m0v
qB
m m0
m0 v p
B
q
q
Magnetic rigidity
d
d
m0 v f q E v B m0 v q E
dt
dt
d
q
v E
Solution of
dt
m0
2
2
qE
qE
v
t 2 1
t
is v
m0
c
m0
dx v
dt
qEt
mc
x 0 1
qE
m0c
1 qE 2
t
2 m0
for qE m0c
19
E v
E//
E
B
,
E
//
f q E v B
Exact:
v E
rest
and
B
In Frame F, particleBis
E// B//
force is
f , qB
at
2
c force, so
Assume measurements give same charge and
ug
h
id
ea
Ro
q q and E E v B
Suggests
1
B B 2 v E
c
q r
, B0
3
4 0 r
0 q v r
1
B
2 vE
3
4 r
c
Potentials
Magnetic vector potential:
B 0 A such that B A
A
A
E
A
E 0
t
t
t
t
A
with E
, so E
t
t
Lorentz Gauge:
f(t), A A
1
A 0
2
c t
21
Electromagnetic 4-Vectors
Lorentz
Gauge
1
1
1
A 0
, , A 4
2
c t
c t
c
4-gradient
Current
4-vector
4-potential
j v
J 0V 0 ( c, v ) ( c, j )
where 0
Continuity
1
4 J
, c , j
j 0
equation
t
c t
Charge-current
transformations
v jx
jx jx v , 2
c
22
Relativistic Transformations
4-potential vector: A , A
c
c
A' x
A' y
A' z
0
0
0
0
0 0
0 0
1 0
0 1
c
Ax
A
y
Az
Ay Ax
B A Bz
and y y , x ' x vt
x y
Fields:
A
Az
vx
E
E z
and z z, t t 2
t
z t
c
B// B//
v E
B 2
c
E// E//
E E v B
23
Frame F
z
Observer P
Frame F
z
Origins coincide
at t=t=0
P has
charge q
0 xP ( xP vt ) so xP vt
vx p
2
2 2
x p r ' b v t ' , t ' t 2 t
In F, fields are only electrostatic (B=0), given by c
q
E ' 3 x 'P
r'
qvt '
qb
E ' x 3 , E ' y 0, E ' z 3
r'
r'
qvt '
qb
E ' x 3 , E ' y 0, E ' z 3
r'
r'
Transform to laboratory frame F:
B// B//
E// E//
v E
B 2
c
E v B
By 2 E 'z Ez
c
c
Ex E 'x
v t
2 2 2
Ey 0
Ez E 'z
Bx Bz 0
At non-relativistic energies, 1, restoring the
Biot-Savart law:
v r
Bq 3
r
q vt
q b
2
v t
2 2 2
Electromagnetic Energy
Rate of doing work on unit volume of a system is
v f d v E j B v E j E
the form
D
D
E E H H E E
j E H
t
t
B D
S H
E
where S E H
t
t
1
S
ED BH
Poynting vector
2 t
26
1
j E
BH ED E H
t 2
dW
d
1
E D B H dV E H dS
dt
dt
2
electric +
magnetic energy
densities of the
fields
Poynting vector
gives flux of e/m
energy across
boundaries
27
Review of Waves
2
2
u
1
u
1D wave equation is
2 2
2
x
v t
with
general solution
u( x, t ) f ( vt x ) g ( vt x )
1D : sin t k x
2
Wavelength is
k
Frequency is
3D : sin t k x
i ( k ) t kx
A
(
k
)
e
dk
t phase
kx 2
constant
peaks
has
t kx 0
x
vp
t k
at
vg
d
dk
Electromagnetic waves
Maxwells equations predict the existence of electromagnetic
B
E
t
B
t
2
2
D
E
2
t
t 2
D
H
t
D 0
B
E
t
B 0
2
E E E
2
E
3D wave equation :
2
2
2
2
E E E
E
2
E 2 2 2 2
x
y
z
t
Nature of Electromagnetic
A general plane wave with angular frequency Waves
travelling in
the direction of the wave vector
E E0 exp[i ( t k x )] B B0 exp[i ( t k x )]
Phase t k x = 2 number of waves and so is a Lorentz
invariant.
Apply Maxwells equations
ik
E 0 B
B
t
k E 0 k B
k E B
and
k
E , B and are mutually perpendicular
Plane
Electromagnetic Wave
33
1 E
B 2
k B 2E
c t
c
Combined with k E B
E kc 2
deduce that
B k
Wavelength
2
k
Frequency
c
k
Reminder: The fact that t k x is an
invariant tells us that
,k
c
is a Lorentz 4-vector, the 4-Frequency vector.
Deduce frequency transforms as
cv
v k
cv
j E
E
E
H j
E
t
t
Modified Maxwell:
Put
Dissipation
factor
ik H E i E
conduction
current
Copper : 5.8 10 7 , 0
D 1012
Teflon : 3 10 -8 , 2.1 0
D 2.57 10 4
displacement
current
i k H E i E
B
Combine with E
k E H
t
k k E k H i E
k E k k 2 E i E
k 2 i since k E 0
1
x
1 i
exp
,
k
copper.mov
, k 2 i
x
Wave form is exp i t
where
1 i
2
water.mov
j 0
t
E 0
t
t
Solution is
0e
2
B
E
E
i H
i H
H
i E
2 E
t
E
2
2
Assume E ( x, y , z , t ) E ( x, y )e( i t z )
H ( x, y , z , t ) H ( x, y )e( i t z )
is the propagation constant
Can solve for the fields completely
in terms of Ez and Hz
Then
2
t
( )
2
E
0
H
Special cases
Transverse magnetic (TM modes):
Hz=0 everywhere, Ez=0 on cylindrical boundary
Transverse electric (TE modes):
Ez=0 everywhere, H z 0 on cylindrical
n
boundary
Transverse electromagnetic (TEM modes):
Ez=Hz=0 everywhere
requires
2 2 0 or i
39
E (0,1,0) E ( x ) e( i t z )
where E ( x ) satisfies
d 2E
2
2
2
2
E
K
E
,
K
dx 2
sin
i.e. E A
Kx
cos
2
t
y
x
E A sin Kx, K K n
n
, n integer
a
a
x=
0
x=
Propagation constant is
K
1
a
c
2
n
Kn
where c
40
Cut-off frequency,
c
n
nx i t z
n
, E A sin
1
e
, c
a
a
a
c
c gives real solution for , so
ik , k
2
2
c
2
c
2
n
c
a
a
n
B
From E , assuming A is real,
t
Ak n x
sin
cos t kz
Hx
a
i
H
E
Hy 0
A n
n x
cos
sin t kz
Hz
a
a
42
Wave
number:
2
c
2
2
, the free space wavelength
Wavelength: k
1
,
Phase velocity: v p
k
k
2
2
c
d
k
1
vg
dk
43
c
1
3 108
fc
5 GHz
2 2a 2 0.03
n
c
a
2
c
2 7 2 52
2
6 cm
k
12
44
Waveguide animations
TE1 mode above cut-off
TE1 mode, smaller
TE1 mode at cut-off
TE1 mode below cut-off
TE1 mode, variable
TE2 mode above cut-off
TE2 mode, smaller
TE2 mode at cut-off
TE2 mode below cut-off
ppwg_1-1.mov
ppwg_1-2.mov
ppwg_1-3.mov
ppwg_1-4.mov
ppwg_1_vf.mov
ppwg_2-1.mov
ppwg_2-2.mov
ppwg_2-3.mov
ppwg_2-4.mov
45
n x
E x E z 0, E y A sin
cos t kz
a
k
n
n x
Hx
E y , H y 0, H z
A cos
sin t kz
a
a
Total e/m energy
density
Time-averaged energy:
1 2
W A a
4
a
2
1
1 2
Electric energy We E dx A a
4 0
8
2
1
1 2
Magnetic energy Wm H dx A a
4 0
8
We
n
k
a
2
n 2 2
since k 2 2
a
2
46
Poynting vector is
Time-averaged:
Integrate over x:
Poynting Vector
S E H E H ,0, E H
y
1
kA2 2 n x
S 0, 0,1
sin
2
1 akA2
Sz
4
1 2
W A a
4
Sz
k
vg
We Wm
48