ET 212 Electronics

Amplifier Frequency
Response
Electrical and Telecommunication
Engineering Technology

Professor Jang

Acknowledgement
I want to express my gratitude to Prentice Hall giving me the permission
to use instructors material for developing this module. I would like to
thank the Department of Electrical and Telecommunications Engineering
Technology of NYCCT for giving me support to commence and
complete this module. I hope this module is helpful to enhance our
students academic performance.

Outlines
Introduction to Frequency
Response of an Amplifier
Gain of an Amplifier in Decibels
(dB)
Frequency Response of a BJT
Amplifier
Frequency Response of an FET
Amplifier
Frequency Response of a
Multistage Amplifier
Key Words: Frequency Response, Amplifier, Decibel, BJT, FET, Multistage
ET212 Electronics Amplifier Frequency Response

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Amplifier Frequency Response

-Introduction
Most amplifiers have a finite range of
frequencies in which it will operate. We will
discuss what determines the frequency
response of an amplifier circuit and how it is
measured.

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Basic Concepts
When frequency is low enough, the coupling and bypass capacitors
can no longer be considered as shorts because their reactances are
large enough to have significant effect. Also, when the frequency is
high enough, the internal transistor capacitances can no longer be
considered as opens because their reactances become small enough
to have significant effect on the amplifier operation. We will discuss
how the capacitor limits the passage of certain frequencies. This is
called the frequency response of an amplifier.

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Basic Concepts Effect of Coupling

Capacitors
Coupling capacitors C1 and C3 limit the passage of very low
frequencies. Emitter bypass C2 capacitor will have high reactance
to low frequencies as well, limiting the gain. Also the capacitance
causes a phase shift of the signal.

1
XC
2fC

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Basic Concepts Effect of Bypass

Capacitors
At lower frequencies, the reactance of the emitter bypass capacitor,
C2 in previous Figure, becomes significant and emitter is no longer at
ac ground. The capacitive reactance XC2 in parallel with RE creates an
impedance that reduces the gain as shown in Figure.
When the frequency is sufficiently high
XC 0 and the voltage gain of the CE
amplifier is

RC
Av
r 'e

At lower frequencies, XC >> 0 and

the voltage gain is
RC
Nonzero reactance of the bypass capacitor in
parallel with RE creates an emitter impedance,

Av

r' Z
e

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Basic Concepts Effect of Internal Transistor

Capacitances

At high frequencies, the coupling and bypass capacitors become effective

ac shorts and do not affect an amplifiers response. Internal transistor
junction capacitances, however, do come into play, reducing an amplifiers
gain and introducing phase shift as the signal frequency increases.

Cbe is the base-emitter junction capacitance and

Cbc is the base-collector junction capacitance.

Basic Concepts Effect of Internal Transistor

Capacitances

When the reactance of Cbe becomes small enough, a significant amount of

the signal voltage is lost due to a voltage-divider effect of the signal source
resistance and the reactance of Cbe as illustrated in Figure (a). When the
resistance of Cbc becomes small enough, a significant amount of output
signal voltage is fed back out of phase with input (negative feedback), thus
effectively reducing the voltage gain as shown in Figure (b).

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Basic Concepts Millers

Theorem
At high frequencies, the coupling and bypass capacitors become effective
ac shorts and do not affect an amplifiers response. Internal transistor
junction capacitances, however, do come into play, reducing an amplifiers
gain and introducing phase shift as the signal frequency increases.

Millers theorem states that C effectively appears as a capacitance from

input and output to ground, as shown in Figure (b).
Cin(Miller) = C(Av + 1)
ET212 Electronics Amplifier Frequency Response

Cout ( Miller )

Av 1

C
Av

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Basic Concepts Millers

Theorem
Millers theorem allows us to view the internal capacitances as
external capacitors for better understanding of the effect they have
on the frequency response.

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The Decibel
The decibel is a common unit of measurement of voltage gain
and frequency response. It is a logarithmic measurement of the
ratio of one power to another or one voltage to another. The
formulas below are used for calculation of decibels for power
gain and voltage gain.
Ap(db) = 10 log Ap
Av(db) = 20 log Av

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Table shows how doubling or having voltage gains translates into dB values. Notice
in the table that every time the voltage gain is doubled, the dB value increases by 6
dB, and every time the gain is halved, the dB value decreases by 6 dB.
VOLTAGE GAIN (Av)

dB (WITH RESPECT TO ZERO REFERENCE)

32

20 log(32) = 30 dB

16

20 log(16) = 24 dB

20 log(8) = 18 dB

20 log(4) = 12 dB

20 log(2) = 6 dB

20 log(1) = 0 dB

0.707

20 log(0.707) = - 3 dB

0.5

20 log(0.5) = - 6 dB

0.25

20 log(0.25) = - 12 dB

0.125

20 log(0.125) = - 18 dB

0.0625

20 log(0.0625) = - 24 dB

0.03125

20 log(0.03125) = - 30 dB

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Ex 10-1 Express each of the following ratios in dB:

Pout
Pout
250
100
(a)
(b)
(c) Av = 10
Pin
Pin
(d) Ap = 0.5

(e)

Vout
0.707
Vin

(a) Ap(dB) = 10 log(250) = 24 dB (b) Ap(dB) = 10 log(100) = 20 dB

(c) Av(dB) = 20 log(10) = 20 dB

(d) Ap(dB) = 10 log(0.5) = - 3 dB

(e) Av(dB) = 20 log(0.707) = - 3 dB

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The Decibel The Critical

Frequency
The critical frequency also known as the cutoff frequency
is the frequency at which the output power drops by 3 dB,
which represents one-half of its midrange value. An output
voltage drop of 3 dB represents about a 70.7% drop from the
midrange value.
Power is often measured in units of dBm. This is decibels
with reference to 1mW of power. This means that 0 dBm =
1mW.

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Ex 10-2 A certain amplifier has a midrange rms output voltage of 10 V.

What is the rms output voltage for each of the following dB gain
reductions with a constant rms input voltage?
(a) 3 dB (b) 6 dB (c) 12 dB (d) 24 dB

Multiply the midrange output voltage by the voltage gain corresponding

to the specified dB value in Table.
(a)
(b)
(c)
(d)

At 3 dB, Vout = 0.707(10 V) = 7.07 V

At 6 dB, Vout = 0.5(10 V) = 5 V
At 12 dB, Vout = 0.25(10 V) = 2.5 V
At 24 dB, Vout = 0.0625(10 V) = 0.625 V

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Low-Frequency Amplifier
Response

In looking at the low frequency ac equivalent circuit of a capacitor

coupled amplifier we can see there are three RC circuits which will
limit low frequency response. The input at the base, the output at the
collector, and the emitter.

Av ( mid )

A capacitively coupled amplifier.

ET212 Electronics Amplifier Frequency Response

Rc

r 'e

The low-frequency ac equivalent circuit of the

amplifier in Figure (left) consists of three high-pass
RC circuits.
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Low-Frequency Amplifier Response The Input RC

Circuit
The input RC circuit for the BJT
amplifier is formed by C1 and the
amplifiers input resistance and is
shown in Figure.
The input circuits effects on the
signal at a given frequency can be
more easily understood by looking
at this simplified input circuit. The
frequency at which the gain is down
by 3dB is called the lower critical
frequency (fc). This frequency can
be determined by the formula below.

1
X C1
Rin
2f cC1

1
fc
2RinC1

R X

Vbase

Rin
2
in

2
C1

Vin

Input RC circuit formed by the input coupling

capacitor and the amplifiers input resistance.

1
fc
2 ( Rs Rin )C1

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Ex 10-3 For an input RC circuit in a certain amplifier, Rin = 1.0 k and C1 = 1 F.

Neglect the source resistance.
(a) Determine the lower critical frequency.
(b) What is the attenuation of the input RC circuit at the lower critical frequency?
(c) If the midrange voltage gain of the amplifier is 100, what is the gain at the
lower critical frequency?

(a)

1
1
fc

159 Hz
2RinC1 2 (1.0k)(1F )

(b) At fc,

Xc1 = Rin. Therefore

Vbase
Attenuation
0.707
Vin
(c) Av = 0.707 Av(mid) = 0.707(100) = 70.7
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Low-Frequency Amplifier Response

Voltage gain roll-off at low frequency
The decrease in voltage gain with frequency is called roll-off.
Lets take a frequency that is one-tenth of the critical frequency (f =0.1fc).
Since Xc1 = Rin at fc, then Xc1 = 10 Rin at 0.1fc because of the inverse
relationship of XC1 and fc. The attenuation of the input RC circuit is,
therefore,
V
Rin
Rin
Attenuation base

2
2
Vin
Rin X C 1
Rin2 (10 Rin ) 2

Rin
Rin

Rin2 100 Rin2

Rin2 (1 100)
Rin
1
1

0 .1
Rin 101
101 10

The dB attenuation is

Vbase
20 log(0.1) 20dB
20 log
Vin

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Low-Frequency Amplifier Response

dB/decade
The decrease in voltage gain
with frequency is called the
roll-off. A ten times change in
frequency is called a decade.
The attenuation measured in
dB at each decade is is the
dB/decade. This typical dB Av
vs frequency illustrates the
relationship. Sometimes rolloff is expressed in dB/octave,
which is a doubling or halving
of a the frequency.

ET212 Electronics Amplifier Frequency Response

dB voltage gain versus frequency

for the input RC circuit.

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Ex 10-4 The midrange voltage gain if a certain amplifier is 100. The input RC
circuit has a lower critical frequency of 1 kHz. Determine the actual voltage gain at
f = 1 kHz, f = 100 Hz, and f = 10 Hz.

When f = 1 kHz, the voltage gain is 3 dB less than at midrange. At 3 dB,

the voltage gain is reduced by a factor of 0.707.
Av = (0.707)(100) = 70.7
When f = 100 Hz = 0.1fc, the voltage gain is 20 dB less than at fc. The
voltage gain at 20 dB is one-tenth of that at the midrange frequencies.
Av = (0.1)(100) = 10
When f = 10 Hz = 0.01fc, the voltage gain is 20 dB less than at f = 0.1fc or
40 dB. The voltage gain at 40 dB is one-tenth of that at 20 dB or one-hundredth that at the midrange frequencies.
Av = (0.01)(100) = 1
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Low-Frequency Amplifier Response

Phase shift in the input RC circuit
In addition to reducing the voltage gain, the input RC circuit also causes
an increasing phase shift through an amplifier as the frequency decreases.
X C1

tan
Rin
1

For midrange frequencies, Xc1 0 , so

0
tan 1 (0) 0o
tan
Rin
1

At the critical frequency, Xc1 = Rin, so

Phase angle versus frequency for the input RC

circuit.

Rin
tan 1 (1) 45o
tan
Rin
1

A decade below the critical frequency,

Xc1 = 10Rin, so

10 Rin
tan 1 (10) 84.3o Input RC circuit causes the base voltage to lead the input voltage
tan
below midrange by an amount equal to the circuit phase angle.
Rin
1

Low-Frequency Amplifier Response

The Output RC Circuit

The output RC circuit affects the response similarly to the input

RC circuit. The formula below is used to determine the cutoff
frequency of the output circuit.
fc = 1/2 (RC + RL)C3

Development of the equivalent low-frequency output RC circuit.

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Low-Frequency Amplifier Response- The Bypass RC

Circuit
The bypass RC circuit is no different in its effect on the gain at low
frequencies. For midrange frequencies it is assumed that XC2 0 ,
effectively shorting the emitter to ground so that the amplifier gain is Rc/re.
As frequency is reduced, XC2 increases. The impedance from emitter to
ground increases, gain decreases. Av = Rc / (re + Re)

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Low-Frequency Amplifier Response- The

Bode Plot
A plot of dB voltage gain versus frequency on semilog paper
(logarithmic horizontal axis scale and a linear vertical axis scale) is
called a Bode plot. A generalized Bode plot for an RC circuit like
that shown in Figure (a) appears in part (b) of the figure.

An RC circuit and its low-frequency response. (Blue is ideal; red is actual.)

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High-Frequency Amplifier Response

A high-frequency ac equivalent circuit for the BJT amplifier in Figure.
Notice that the coupling and bypass capacitors are treated as effective
shorts and do not appear in the equivalent circuit. The internal
capacitances, Cbe and Cbc, which are significant only at high frequencies,
do appear in the diagram.

Capacitively coupled amplifier and its high-frequency equivalent circuit.

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High-Frequency Amplifier Response

Millers Theorem in High-Frequency
Analysis

Looking in from the signal source, the capacitance Cbc appears in the
Miller input capacitance from base to ground.
Cin(Miller) = Cbc(Av + 1)
Cbe simply appears as a capacitance to ac ground, as shown in Figure, in
parallel with Cin(Miller). Looking in at collector, Cbc appears in the Miller
output capacitance from collector to ground. As shown in Figure.

Coutput ( Miller )

Av 1

Cbc
Av

High-frequency
equivalent
circuit after applying Millers theorem.
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Amplifier Frequency
Response
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Low-Frequency Amplifier Response- The Input RC

Circuit
At high frequencies, the input circuit is as shown in Figure (a), where ac re
is the input resistance. By combining Cbe and Cin(Miller) in parallel and
repositioning shown in Figure (b). By thevenizing the circuit to left of
capacitor, as indicated, the input RC circuit is reduced to the equivalent
form shown in Figure (c).
XCtot = Rs||R1||R2||ac re
Therefore,
1/(2fc Ctot) = Rs||R1||R2||acre
and
fc = 1/(2(Rs||R1||R2||acre )Ctot
Where Rs is the resistance of the signal source and Ctot = Cbe + Cin(miller).
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Ex 10-10 Derive the input RC circuit for the BJT amplifier in Figure. Also
determine the critical frequency. The transistors data sheet provides the
following: ac = 125, Cbe = 20 pF, and Cbc = 2.4 pF.

First, find re as follows:

R2
4.7 k
VB
VCC
10V 1.76V
26.7 k
R1 R2
VE VB 0.7V 1.06V
VE 1.06V
IE

2.26mA
RE 470
25mV
r 'e
11.1
IE
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The total resistance of the input circuit is

Rin(tot) = Rs||R1||R2||ac re = 600 ||22 k||4.7 k||125(11.1 ) = 378
Next, in order to determine the capacitance, you must calculate the
midrange gain of the amplifier so that you can apply Millers theorem.

Av ( mid )

Rc RC // RL 1.1k

99
r 'e
r 'e
11.1

Apply Millers theorem.

Cin(Miller) = Cbc(Av(mid) + 1) = (2.4 pF)(100) = 240 pF
The total input capacitance is Cin(Miller) in parallel with Cbe.
Cin(tot) = Cin(Miller) + Cbe = 240 pF + 20 pF = 260 pF
fc

2 ( Rin ( tot ) )(Cin ( tot ) )

1

2 (378)(260 pF )
1.62 MHz

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Total Amplifier Frequency Response

Figure (b) shows a generalized ideal response curve (Bode plot) for the BJT
amplifier shown in Figure (a). The three break points at the lower critical
frequencies (fc1, fc2, and fc3) are produced by the three low-frequency RC
circuits formed by the coupling and bypass capacitors. The break points at
the upper critical frequencies, fc4 and fc5, are produced by the two highfrequency RC circuit formed by the transistors internal capacitances.

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Total Amplifier Frequency Response Bandwidth

An amplifier normally operates with signal frequencies between fcl and fcu.
The range (band) of frequencies lying between fcl and fcu is defined as the
bandwidth of the amplifier, as illustrated in Figure. The amplifiers
bandwidth is expressed in units of hertz as
BW = fcu fcl

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