ACOUSTICS

Acoustics

The science of sound, including its

production, propagation and effects
The objective study of the physical behavior
of sound in an enclosed space

Sound

A wave motion consisting of a series of

condensations and rarefactions in an elastic
medium produced by a vibrating body

Requirements to Produce
Sound

Requirements to Produce
Sound
1. Presence of vibrating body
2. Presence of transmitting medium
3. Presence of receiving medium

AUDIBLE FREQUENCY RANGE

Infrasonic/Subsonic

frequencies below the audible range

Ultrasonic/Supersonic

frequencies above the audible range

Audible Range: 20 Hz 20kHz

AUDIBLE FREQUENCY
RANGE

General Interpretations of
Sound
1. Physical phenomenon consisting of
wave motion in a transmitting
medium (objective)
2. Sensation due to outside simulation
(subjective)

Physical Properties of Sound

Physical Properties of Sound

1. Amplitude magnitude of the
vibration (pressure, current, voltage)
2. Period time it takes to complete a
vibration/cycle
3. Frequency number of vibrations /
cycle per unit time

Physical Properties of Sound

4. Wavelength physical length of a
vibration
5. Velocity of Propagation
Vsound << VRF
(344 m/sec << 3 x 108 m/sec)

Velocity of Sound
Solids

Where:
E = Youngs Modulus of elasticity, dynes/cm 3
d = density of the medium, g/cm3

Velocity of Sound
Liquids

Where:
E = Bulks Modulus of elasticity, dynes/cm 3
d = density of the medium, g/cm3

Velocity of Sound
Gases

Where:
k = specific heat ratio = hsp/hsv
hsp = specific heat at constant pressure
hsv = specific heat at constant volume
p = gas pressure, dynes/cm2
d = density, g/cm3

Velocity of Sounds
Dry Air/Air (for TC 20 0C)

Velocity of Sounds
Dry Air/Air (for TC > 20 0C)

where:
TK = temperature in Kelvin

Velocity of Sound

Velocity of Sounds

Notes
Sounds travel more slowly in gases than in
liquids, and more slowly in liquids than in
solids.
Sounds travels slower with an increased
altitude (elevation if you are on solid earth),
primarily as a result and humidity changes.

QUESTIONS
1. Which best describes the sound wave?
a. It may be longitudinal
b. It is always transverse
c. It is always longitudinal
d. All of the above

2. Which of the following cannot travel

through a vacuum?
a. Electromagnetic wave
b. Radio wave
c. Sound wave
d. Light wave

3. Through which medium does sound

travel fastest?
a. Air
b. Water
c. Steel
d. Mercury

4. Speed that is faster than that of

sound.
a. Ultrasonic
b. Supersonic
c. Subsonic
d. Transonic

5. What is the speed of sound in air at

20C?
a. 1087 ft/s
b. 1100 ft/s
c. 1126 ft/s
d. 200 ft/s

6. Calculate a half wavelength sound

for sound of 16000 Hz
a. 35 ft
b. 10 ft
c. 0.035 ft
d. 100 ft

7. The lowest frequency that a human

ear can hear is
a. 5 Hz
b. 20 Hz
c. 30 Hz
d. 20 kHz

8. Sound that vibrates at frequency too

high for the human ear to hear (over 20
kHz)
a. Subsonic
b. Ultrasonic
c. Transonic
d. Stereo

9. What is the speed of sound in a material

having a density of 1000 kg/cu.m. and
Youngs modulus of elasticity of 2.3 x 10exp
9 N/sq.m.?
a. 1517 m/sec
b. 1571 m/sec
c. 1715 m/sec
d. 1751 m/sec

10. In acoustics, the volume velocity

component is a function of the _____ of the
material.
a. density
b. volume
c. diameter
d. Youngs modulus

11. A sound intensity that could cause

painful sensation to the human ear.
a. threshold of sense
b. threshold of pain
c. hearing threshold
d. sensation intensity

Possibilities when a
Propagated Sound is
Obstructed (3)

Possibilities when a
Propagated Sound is
Obstructed (3)

Possibilities when a
Propagated Sound is
Obstructed (3)

Sound is Reflected

Echo

Flutter

Becomes apparent to the listener only when the distance

from the source and the reflecting medium is great and the
difference between the original and reflected sound is
greater or equal to 1/17 of a second.
Brought about by a series of reflections between two parallel
surfaces resulting to prolongation of sound
Creates listening fatigue

Interference

Reflection caused by two parallel surfaces, producing

standing waves

Possibilities when a
Propagated Sound is
Obstructed

Sound is absorbed

Conversion of sound energy to heat energy

Onward transmission through

obstruction

Physiological Characteristics
of Wave Motion (3)

Pitch

Physiological Characteristics
of Wave Motion (3)

Pitch

Number of cycles a wave goes through in a

definite interval
The higher the frequency, the higher the
pitch

Mel unit of pitch

1000 mels pitch of 1000Hz tone at 40dB
Octave pitch interval 2:1; frequency is twice
the given tone

Physiological Characteristics
of Wave Motion (3)

Tone

Timbre quality of sound

Pure Tone a sound composed of only one

frequency in which the sound pressure varies
sinusoidally with time.
Musical Sound composed of the
fundamental frequency and its harmonics

Physiological Characteristics
of Wave Motion (3)

Loudness

Fluctuation of air pressure created by sound waves

Observers auditory impression of the strength of a
sound and is associated with the rate at which
energy is transmitted to the ear.
Depends on the amplitude of the sound

Loudness Level measured by the sound level of a

standard pure tone or specified frequency which is
assessed by normal observers as being equally loud

PHON
Phon is the unit of loudness level
when:

The standard pure tone is produced by a

sensibly plane sinusoidal progressive sound
wave coming from directly in front of the
observer and having the frequency of 1kHz
The sound pressure level in the free
progressive wave is expressed in dB above 2
x 10-5 N/m2

SONE
Sone is the unit of loudness of an
individual listener.
Phon = 40 + 10 log2 sone

Sound Levels
Sound Pressure (P) and
Sound Pressure Level (SPL)
Sound Pressure

The alternating component of the pressure at

a particular point in a sound field
Expressed in N/m2 or Pa

Sound Levels
Sound Pressure Level

Equal to 20 times the logarithm to the base 10 of

the ratio of the RMS sound pressure to the
reference sound pressure

SPL = 20 log (P/Po)

Where:
P = rms sound pressure
Po = reference sound pressure
Po = 2 x 10-5 N/m2 or Pa or 2 x 10-4 dynes/cm2
Po = 0.0002 bar or 2.089 lb/ft2

Sound Pressure Levels

Sound Pressure Levels

Sound Pressure Level (SPL) at any unit of

pressure in dB

SPL = 20log(P+N)
Where:
PN = rms sound pressure expressed in any of
pressure in dB
N = SPL constant corresponding to the unit at
which sound pressure is expressed

Sound Pressure Levels

SPL Constants

Sound Levels
Sound Intensity (I) and
Sound Intensity Level (SIL)
Sound Intensity

Defined as the acoustic power per unit area

The basic units are W/m2 or W/cm2
The average rate of transmission of sound
energy through a cross-sectional area of 1
m2 at right angles to a particular direction.

Sound Levels

Sound Levels

Sound Levels
For sound produced at ground level

Sound Levels
Sound Intensity

I = 2 / d v
Where: d density of the medium (kg/m3)
v velocity of sound in medium (m/sec)
rms pressure in Pa (N/m2)

Sound Levels
Sound Intensity in Air

I = 2 / 410
Where: dv 410 ray/sec
rms pressure in Pa (N/m2)

Sound Levels

Sound Intensity Level

Where:
I = sound intensity,
Io = threshold intensity,
Io = 10-12 W/m2 or 10-16 W/cm2

Sound Levels
Sound Power (W) and
Sound Power Level (PWL)
Sound Power (W)

The total energy radiated per unit time.

Sound Levels

Sound Power Level (PWL)

Where:
W = sound power , W
Wo = reference sound power
Wo = 10-12 w

12. The frequency interval between two

sounds whose frequency ratio is 2.
a. Octave
b. Half octave
c. Third-octave
d. Decade

13. A 16 KHz sound is how many octaves

higher than a 500 Hz sound
a. 2
b. 5
c. 4
d. 8

14. Sound waves composed of but one

frequency is a/an
a. Infra sound
b. Pure tone
c. Structure borne
d. Residual sound

15. Sound wave has two main

characteristics which are
a. Highness and loudness
b. Tone and loudness
c. Pitch and loudness
d. Rarefactions and compressions

16. _____ is the sound power measured over

the area upon which is received.
a. Sound pressure
b. Sound energy
c. Sound intensity
d. Sound pressure level

17. A measure of the intensity of sound in

comparison to another sound intensity
a. Phon
b. Decibel
c. Pascal
d. Watts

18. Calculate the sound intensity level in

dB of a sound whose intensity is 0.007
W/m2.
a. 95 dB
b. 91 dB
c. 98 dB
d. 101 dB

19. What is the sound pressure level for a

given sound whose RMS pressure is
200 N/m2?
a. 200 dB
b. 20 dB
c. 140 dB
d. 14 dB

20. The amplitude of sound waves, the

maximum displacement of each air particle,
is the property which perceive as _____ of a
sound
a. Pitch
b. Intensity
c. Loudness
d. Harmonics

21. If the sound source radiates 1 watt, what

is its sound power level?
a. 0 dB
b. 60 dB
c. 120 dB
d. 240 dB

22. If a note has a fundamental frequency of

100Hz, what is its 5th octave?
a. 6400 Hz
b. 3200 Hz
c. 500 Hz
d. 1600 Hz

23. What is the sound intensity for an RMS

pressure of 200 Pascal?
a. 90 W/m2
b. 98 W/m2
c. 108 W/m2
d. 88 W/m2

24. The sound pressure level is increased by

_____ dB if the pressure is doubled.
a. 3
b. 4
c. 5
d. 6

25. The sound pressure level is

increased by _____ dB if the intensity is
doubled.
a. 3
b. 4
c. 5
d. 6

26. If four identical sounds are added

what is the increase in level in dB?
a. 3
b. 4
c. 5
d. 6

27. A unit of noisiness related to the

perceived noise level
a. Noy
b. dB
c. Sone
d. Phon

28. What is the loudness level of a 1KHz

tone if its intensity is
1 x 105W/cm2?
a. 100 phons
b. 105 phons
c. 110 phons
d. 100 phons

29. What is the unit of loudness of an

individual listener?
a. Sone
b. Phon
c. Decibel
d. Mel

30. It is the weakest sound that average

human hearing can detect.
a. SPL = 0 dB
b. Threshold of hearing
c. Reference pressure = 2 x 10-5N/m2
d. A, b, c

31. When waves bend away from straight lines

of travel, it is called
a. Reflection
b. Diffraction
c. Rarefaction
d. Refraction

32. The amplitude of sound waves, the

maximum displacement of each air particle,
is the property which perceive as _____ of a
sound
a. Pitch
b. Intensity
c. Loudness
d. Harmonics

Room Acoustics

Room Acoustics

Concerned with the behavior of sound

within an enclosed space with a view to
obtaining the optimum acoustic effect on
the occupants

Room Acoustics

Room Acoustics

Requirements
Adequate amount of sound must reach all
parts of the room.
Even distribution of sound
Noise must be reduced to an acceptable
level.
Optimum Reverberation time, RT60

Reverberation

Reverberation

Tendency for the sound to persist over a

definite period of time after it has been
produced originally and stopped at the
source.

Reverberation

Reverberation

Reverberation

Reverberation Time, RT60

Time taken for the density of sound energy

in the room to drop to 1 millionth (60dB)
below of its initial value

Optimum Periods of
Reverberation

Factors Affecting
Reverberation Time

Volume of the room

Type of materials
Surface area of
material

TYPES OF ROOM
LIVE ROOM
- Little absorption (RT60 > 1 sec)
DEAD ROOM
- Large absorption (RT60 < 1 sec)
ANECHOIC ROOM
- 100% absorption (free field conditions)

Room Acoustics

Coefficient of absorption,

Ratio of incident sound and absorbed sound

Efficiency of sound absorption

Room Acoustics

Coefficient of Absorption

Room Acoustics

Coefficient of Absorption

Reverberation Time
Equations
a. Sabines Equation

For actual reverberation time with average

absorption less than or equal to 0.2; (absorption
coefficient, 0.2)

Where;
V = room volume,
m3
A = total absorption
units

Reverberation Time
Equations

Where;
V = room volume, ft3
A = total absorption units

Reverberation Time
Equations
33.Calculate the reverberation time of a broadcast studio
8 ft. high by 13 ft wide by 20 ft. long. The material
used has a total absorption of 180.75 sabines.

Reverberation Time
Equations
b. Norris Eyring Equation

For actual reverberation time with average

absorption greater than 0.2; ( 0.2 )
Where;
V = room volume, m3
= average coefficient
of reflecting surfaces

Reverberation Time
Equations
34. A lecture room, 16 m. long, 12.5 m. wide and 5 m.
high has a reverberation time of 0.75 sec. Calculate the
average absorption coefficient of the surfaces using the
Eyring formula.

Reverberation Time
Equations
c. Stephens and Bate Equation
For ideal reverberation time computation

Where:
r = 4 for speech
r = 5 for orchestra
r = 6 for choir

Optimum Volume / person

Concert Halls
7.1
Italian type opera houses 4.2 5.1
Churches 7.1 9.9
Cinemas
3.1
Rooms for Speeches 2.8

Reverberation Time
Equations
35. Suggest the optimum volume and reverberation
time for a concert hall to be used mainly for
orchestral music and to hold 450 people.

36. A church has an internal volume of

2550 cu.m. When it contains
absorption of 186 metric sabines, what
will be its reverberation time in sec.?
a. 2
b. 2.2
c. 2.5
d. 3.0

37. The transmission of sound from one room

to an adjacent room, via common walls,
floors or ceilings.
a. Flanking transmission
b. Reflection
c. Refraction
d. Reverberation

38. _____ is the continuing presence of an

audible sound after the sound source has
stop.
a. Flutter echo
b. Sound concentration
c. Sound shadow
d. Reverberation

39. Required time for any sound to decay

to 60 dB
a. Echo time
b. Reverberation time
c. Delay time
d. Transient time

40. A room containing relatively little

sound absorption
a. Dead room
b. Anechoic room
c. Live room
d. Free-field

41. A room in which the walls offer essentially

100% absorption, therefore simulating free
field conditions.
a. Dead room
b. Anechoic room
c. Live room
d. Closed room

42. Calculate the reverberation time of the

room, which has a volume of 8700 ft3 and
total sound absorption 140 sabines.
a. 0.3 sec
b. 3.5 sec
c. 3 sec
d. 0.53 sec

43. _____ is early reflection of sound.

a. Echo
b. Pure sound
c. Reverberation
d. Intelligible sound

MICROPHONES

Microphone

An acoustic device classified as a transducer

which converts sound waves into their
corresponding electrical impulses

Transducer

A device which when actuated by energy in

one transmission system, supplies energy in
the same form or in another form, to a
second transmission system

Classification of
Microphones
A. General Categories
1.

Passive (Generator Type) Microphone

2.

Does not require external power source

Active (Amplifier Type) Microphone

Needs an external power source for its

operation

Classification of
Microphones
B. According to Impedance
1.

High Impedance

2.

Greater than 1000 ohms

Low Impedance

1000 ohms and below

Classification of
Microphones
C. According to Method of Coupling
Pressure Type
Actuated by the
pressure of sound
waves against
the diaphragm.

Classification of
Microphones
C. According to Method of Coupling
Velocity Type
- actuated by
velocity of
sound waves

Classification of
Microphones
C. According to Method of Coupling

Contact Type

Classification of
Microphones
D. According to Elements Used
1. Dynamic

Uses the principle of electromagnetic

induction
Electromagnetic moving coil microphone
A medium-priced instrument of high
sensitivity

Classification of
Microphones

Classification of
Microphones
2. Ribbon

Velocity microphone
Ribbon moves as if it is a part of the air
that experiences rarefactions and
condensations

Classification of
Microphones

Classification of
Microphones
3. Capacitor

Condenser type or electrostatic

microphone

Classification of
Microphones
4. Carbon

Uses principle of variable resistance

Classification of
Microphones
5. Crystal

Uses principle of piezoelectric effect

Classification of
Microphones
6. Magnetic

Operated on the magnetic reluctance due to

the movable core

Classification of
Microphones
E. According to directional
Characteristics
Unidirectional

Classification of
Microphones
E. According to directional
Characteristics
Bidirectional

Classification of
Microphones
E. According to directional
Characteristics
Omnidirectional

Classification of
Microphones

E. According to directional
Characteristics
Cardioid

Characteristics of
Microphone
1. Frequency Response

Frequency over which the microphone will

operate normally

Magnetic
Crystal
Condenser
Carbon

:
:
:
:

60 10
50 10
50 15
200 3

000Hz
000Hz
000Hz
000Hz

Characteristics of
Microphone
2. Sensitivity

Ability of the microphone to detect very

slight changes of sound.

3. Dynamic Range

Range of sound intensity that would be

covered by the microphone

Special Types of
Microphones

Line Microphone

Capable of picking up sound from a great

distance at an angle of 45 degrees and is
highly sensitive

Special Types of
Microphones
Differential Microphone
Used in noisy places; good up to 3-in
distance

53. A transducer that converts acoustic

signals into electrical signals.
a. microphone
b. loudspeaker
c. both a and b
d. none of these

54. A characteristic of a microphone which

indicates the frequency range over which the
microphone the frequency range over which
the microphone will operate normally.
a. sensitivity
b. frequency response
c. dynamic range
d. directional characteristic

55. An ability of the microphone to detect very

slight changes of sound.
a. sensitivity
b. frequency response
c. dynamic range
d. directional characteristic

56. The range of sound intensity that would

be covered by the microphone.
a. sensitivity
b. frequency response
c. dynamic range
d. directional characteristic

57. It is an audio transducer that converts

acoustic pressure in air into its equivalent
electrical impulses
a. Loudspeaker
b. Amplifier
c. Baffle
d. Microphone

58. _____ is a pressure type microphone with

permanent coil as a transducing element.
a. Dynamic
b. Condenser
c. Magnetic
d. Carbon

59. A microphone which has an internal

impedance of 25 k is _____ type.
a. High impedance
b. Low impedance
c. Dynamic
d. Magnetic

60. A microphone that uses the

piezoelectric effect
a. Dynamic
b. Condenser
c. Crystal
d. Carbon

61. It describes the output of a

microphone over a range of frequencies.
a. Directivity
b. Sensitivity
c. Frequency response
d. All of the above

62. A special microphone characterized by a

long perforated tube and high sensitivity,
suitable for TV applications.
a. line microphone
b. dynamic microphone
c. differential microphone
d. ribbon microphone

63. Using a microphone at less than the

recommended working distance will
create a _____ which greatly increases
the low frequency signals.
a. Roll-off
b. Proximity effect
c. Drop out
d. None of the choices

LOUDSPEAKERS

Loudspeakers
Are

transducers that convert

electrical signals to sound
waves.

Types of Loudspeakers
Direct Radiator Type

1.

Those in which the vibrating surface

(diaphragm) radiates sound directly into the
air

Dynamic or Moving Coil Loudspeaker

Makes use of a moving coil in a magnetic
field and a permanent magnet

Types of Loudspeakers
Dynamic or Moving Coil Loudspeaker

Types of Loudspeakers
Electrostatic Loudspeaker
Operates on the same principle as a
condenser microphone

Types of Loudspeakers
Horn Type

Those in which a horn is interposed between the

diaphragm and the air
Used for efficient coupling of sound into the air
Types:

Conical Horn
Parabolic Horn
Exponential Horn
Hyperbolic Horn

Types of Loudspeakers

To cover the entire range of audible

frequencies, the following speakers
are used:

Types of Loudspeakers

Woofer for low frequencies

Types of Loudspeakers
Tweeter for high frequencies

Types of Loudspeakers
Midrange for normal range

Types of Loudspeakers

Subwoofer for very low frequencies

DIVIDING NETWORK

Loudspeaker Phasing

When more than one speaker is used:

Phasing must be uniform

Polarities and voice coils are in phase such
that the cone of all the speakers move
inwards at the same instant.

Loudspeaker Enclosure
(Baffle)

Loudspeaker mounting that is used to

prevent the sound waves from the rear
from interfering with the sound waves
in the front of speaker

DOLBY DIGITAL

Dolby Digital is the name for audio

compression technologies developed by
Dolby Laboratories. It was originally named
Dolby Stereo Digital until 1994. Except for
Dolby TrueHD, the audio compression is
lossy.

DOLBY DIGITAL

DOLBY DIGITAL

The first use of Dolby Digital was to provide

digital sound in cinemas from 35mm film
prints. It is now also used for other
applications such as HDTV broadcast,
DVDs, Blu-ray Discs and game consoles.

DIGITAL THEATRE SOUND

DTS is a series of multichannel audio

technologies owned by DTS, Inc. (formerly
known as Digital Theater Systems, Inc.), an
American company specializing in digital
surround sound formats used for both
commercial/theatrical and consumer grade
applications. It was known as The Digital
Experience until 1995.

DIGITAL AUDIO
BROADCASTING

Digital Audio Broadcasting (DAB) is a

digital radio technology for broadcasting
radio stations, used in several countries,
particularly in Europe. As of 2006,
approximately 1,002 stations worldwide
broadcast in the DAB format.[1]

64. An amplifier can deliver 100 W to a

loudspeaker. If the rated efficiency of the
loudspeaker is -60 dB. What is the
maximum intensity 300 ft from it?
a. 10 dB
b. 20 dB
c. 30 dB
d. 40 dB

65. Speaker is a device that

a. Converts sound waves into current
and voltage
b. Converts current variations into
sound waves
c. Converts electrical energy to
mechanical energy
d. Converts electrical energy to
electromagnetic energy

66. The impedance of most drivers is about

_____ ohms at their resonant frequency.
a. 4
b. 6
c. 8
d. 10

67. It is a transducer used to convert

electrical energy to mechanical energy.
a. Microphone
b. Baffle
c. Magnetic assemble
d. Driver

68. It is an enclosure used to prevent front

and back wave cancellation.
a. Loudspeaker
b. Driver
c. Baffle
d. Frame

69. A circuit that divides the frequency

components into separate bands in order to
have individual feeds to the different
drivers.
a. Suspension system
b. Dividing network
c. Magnet assembly
d. Panel board

70. What is a device that is used to measure

the hearing sensitivity of a person?
a. Audiometer
b. OTDR
c. SLM
d. Spectrum analyzer

71. _____ is a type of loudspeaker driver with

an effective diameter of 5 inches used at
midrange audio frequency.
a. Tweeter
b. Woofer
c. Mid-range
d. A or C

72. _____ is measure of how much sound is

produced from the electrical signal.
a. Sensitivity
b. Distortion
c. Efficiency
d. Frequency response

73. A loudspeaker radiates an acoustic

power of 1 mW if the electrical input is
10 W. What is its rated efficiency?
a. -10 dB
b. -20 dB
c. -30 dB
d. -40 dB

74. What is the device used in measuring

sound pressure levels incorporating a
microphone, amplification, filtering and a
display.
a. Audiometer
b. OTDR
c. SLM
d. Spectrum analyzer

75. It is the device used to calibrate an

SLM?
a. Microphone
b. Pistonphone
c. Telephone
d. Filter

76. Noise reduction system used for film

sound in movie.
a. Dolby
b. DBx
c. dBa
d. dBk