K.v.ramana, Deilling and Blasting

Opencast mining
Drilling and blasting key

features
Introduction
Drilling is used in mining for:
placement of explosives
geological exploration
installation of rock bolts for support
installation of rock anchors for hanging of

equipment
Tuesday, December 8,
2015
Supervisors development
programme
Rotary percussive drilling achieves the breakage of rock by a combination of the

following actions:
Percussion
A piston operated by either pneumatic or hydraulic power strikes a drill rod
which transmits the shock waves produced by the impact to the drill bit.
Rotation
After each strike of the piston, the rod and bit are turned so that on the next
strike the tungsten carbide inserts of the bit impact on a different piece of
rock.
Feed or thrust load

In order to maintain the drill bit in contact with the rock a thrust force is
applied to the drill rod.
Flushing
Water or air is injected through the drill rod and bit to the bottom of the
hole in order to flush out the drill cuttings.
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Drilling machine
The prime mover, converting electric, hydraulic
or pneumatic energy into mechanical energy by
means of a piston and a rotary mechanism.
Feed mechanism
A pneumatic, hydraulic piston or mechanical
mechanism that applies thrust to the drill rod
and bit.
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Drill rod
Transmits the percussive and rotary forces down the drill hole from the drill to
the bit. Also termed a steel, stem or pipe.
In the case of relatively short holes (e.g. up to 5 m), only one steel is used at any
one time. For the drilling of longer holes (up to 100 m for production blasting),
additional rods are attached, generally by means of screw threads at the ends
of the rods, as the hole is deepened. The length of rod depends on the travel of
the feed mechanism. A series of connected drill rods is termed a drill string.
Bit
Applies the drill energy directly to the rock to achieve penetration.
Circulation fluid
Cleans the hole, suppresses dust and cools the bit.
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Percussive drill bits break rock by repetitive impaction and indentation.

There are two major types of percussive drill bit: the brazed bit and
the button bit.
a) Brazed Bit
Brazed bits are made up from either one or four rectangular
prisms of cemented tungsten carbide. These inserts are brazed into
the end of the steel drill bit. They can be arranged as either cross bit
(inserts mounted at 90o intervals around the bit face) or X-bit (angles
between the inserts 80 o and 100 o). An advantage of the brazed bit is
that, when worn, it can be re-sharpened by grinding the tungsten
carbide inserts.
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Drilled holes are included in the bit body, usually one

centre hole and four others located around the outside
of the bit. These holes provide the passages for water
during drilling that cools the bit inserts, removes rock
chips and suppresses dust. The drill bits are always of
larger diameter than the rod so that there is an
annulus, or gap, between the rod and the walls of the
drill hole. It is through this gap that the drill water
flushes rock cuttings to the surface. This system is
also applied to button bits as described below.
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This type of bit features cylindrical tungsten

carbide inserts that are press-fitted into holes in
the end of the bit body .The ends that protrude
from the bit are domed. The button bit design is
generally limited to tools greater than 50 mm
diameter because of the space available for
mounting the buttons. The advantage of button over
brazed bits in larger holes is that there is a more
even distribution of cutting elements over the base
of the hole, resulting in higher drilling rates.
Generally, button bits cannot be re-sharpened.
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Top hammer rigs are used underground, in quarries and

in surface mines using small diameter holes (such as
gold mines when bench heights are kept relatively low
to improve grade control). Top hammer drills perform
best with small diameter holes and relatively short
depths, as their penetration rate decreases with
depth and drill deviation increases with depth.
How ever recent drilling technology is permitting drill
machines with top hammers to drill up to 150 mm dia
meters with penetrations up to 30 meters /hour
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In a compressed air rock drill, the supply line comes

in to a manifold. The percussive action of the drill is
produced by the action of a valve which directs live
air to either side of the piston. The piston strikes
the base of the drill steel, held in a chuck at the
front of the machine. A water hose is also coupled
to the drill. Water is fed through the machine body,
down a central hole in the drill steel to the bit.
Rotation may be produced by either a rifle bar and
ratchet system that is integral to the piston
mechanism or by an independent motor mounted
outside the hammer mechanism.
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In the case of an integral rotation system, the hexagonal drill

steel fits into a similar hole in the chuck.
The chuck engages the chuck bushing.
In the bushing, a chuck nut engages the straight splines on
the stem of the piston so that rotation of the piston causes
rotation of the drill steel. The rifle nut in the head of the
piston engages spiral flutes on a rifle bar.
A ratchet mechanism allows the bar to rotate during the
power stroke but not on the return stroke.
Consequently, the piston must rotate on the return stroke
and through the various connections the drill steel also
rotates.
This system is applied to hand-held rock drills as it limits the
size and weight of the machine.
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Compressed air drilling machine
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Independent rotation is applied to drilling machines

mounted on large mechanised rigs. Cylindrical
gearing is used to transmit rotation to the drill
steel. Advantages of this system are:
For the same diameter piston the piston receives

more energy because, when the rifle bar is
eliminated, the piston area on which the
compressed air acts is increased.
The independent systems allow rotation and
percussion can be adjusted to suit the rock
conditions.
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The development of hydraulic rock drilling in

the later 1960s and early 1970s represented an
important technological advance. Hydraulic
systems are inherently more efficient and also
safer than compressed air power.
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Surface mines and quarries
Down-the-hole (DTH), or In the hole (ITH), drills differ from

conventional drills in that the piston itself is located down the
hole at the end of the drill string and imparts percussive force
directly to the bit.
It has the advantage that no energy is dissipated along the
length of the drill string and the penetration rate remains
virtually constant, regardless of the hole depth.
For the drilling of large diameter holes of 165-228 mm diameter,
a DTH rig is easier to design than the equivalent top hammer drill.
Large diameter holes improve the efficiency of blasting and DTH
systems are in competition with rotary drilling for diameters
above 150 mm in hard rock surface mines and large quarries.
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Dis advantages
Advantages
Hydraulic top hammer
Down-the-hole hammer
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More efficient than pneumatic.

Less drill rod fatigue, hence
lower consumables costs.
Penetration rates 50-100%
higher than pneumatic.
Less noise.
Greater flexibility - rotation,
pressure and percussion rate
variability.
Easier to automate
Compared to pneumatic top
hammer:
Constant penetration rate as
hole deepens.
Less bit wear due to flushing air.
Longer rod life.
Hole deviation greatly reduced.
Reduced air consumption.
Less noise.
programme
High capital cost of rigs.

Maintenance more complex.
Low penetration rates.

Hammer size limited by hole
diameter.
Risk of losing hammer down
hole.
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The drill piston is powered by compressed air delivered

through the core of the rods at supply pressures ranging
typically from (85-250 psi). A simple pneumatic or
hydraulic motor mounted on the surface rig produces
rotation and flushing is achieved by the exhaust air from
the hammer.
The piston size in a DTH drill is limited by the diameter
of the hole but productivity can be improved by
increasing the air supply pressure. The introduction of
high pressure compressors means that DTH designs with
operating pressures of 1.7 to 2.4 MPa are now available
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Sr no
Hardness value
mineral
01
Talc
02
Gypsum
03
calcite
04
Fluorite
05
Apatite
06
Orthoclase
07
Quartz
08
Topaz
09
Saphire
10
10
Diamond
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Hardness value
Mineral
3.0
Lime stone
3.5
Dolomite
4.0
Granite
6.0
Trap rock
6.5
chert
7.0
Quartz
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1.Rock mass properties

2.Explosive properties.
3.Blast geometry, angles of the blast
holes towards the free face.
4Initiation
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Detonation Theory: An explosive, or blasting agent, is a

compound or a mixture of compounds, which, when initiated by
heat, impact, friction, or shock, is capable of undergoing a
rapid decomposition, releasing tremendous amounts of heat
and gas.
The decomposition is a self-propagating, exothermic reaction
called an explosion. The stable end products are gases that
are compressed, under elevated temperature, to very high
pressures.
It is the sudden rise in temperature and pressure from
ambient conditions that results in a shock wave, or a
detonation, travelling through the un reacted explosive.
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The velocity of detonations lies in the approximate

range of (1500 to 9000 m/s), well above the speed
of sound in the explosive material.
Deflagration is the chemical burning of explosive

ingredients at a rate well below the sonic velocity.
It is associated with heat only and carries no
shock. Deflagration occurs when less than ideal
hole-loading conditions or explosive formulation
are involved
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All commercial explosives are mixtures of carbon, hydrogen,

oxygen, and nitrogen. The maximum energy release upon detonation
occurs when the explosive mix is formulated for oxygen balance. An
oxygen-balanced mixture is one in which there is no excess or
deficiency in oxygen, such that the gaseous products formed are
chiefly H2O (water vapour), CO2 (carbon dioxide), and N2
(nitrogen).
In actual blasting practice, small amounts of noxious gases such as
NO (nitric oxide), CO (carbon monoxide), NH4 (ammonia), CH4
(methane), and solid carbon, are formed
resulting in non ideal detonations and somewhat less than ideal
pressures and energies. Commercial explosive formulation attempts
to achieve an oxygen-balanced mixture.
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Density The density of an explosive is defined as the weight

per unit volume or the specific gravity. Commercial explosives
range in density from 0.5 to 1.7. Explosives with a density less
than 1 will float in water.
Therefore, in water-filled holes, an explosive with a density greater
than 1 is required.
For certain granular explosives such as dynamite, density correlates to
the energy released in a given borehole volume. However, for water
based explosives, this is not the case, and often the reverse is true.
Density is most useful in determining the loading density
LD or the weight of explosives one can load per unit length

of borehole
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The ability of an explosive to withstand exposure to water for long

periods of time without loss of strength or ability to detonate
defines the water resistance.
A numerical rating is used based on the results of tests performed
on the explosive. However, explosive manufacturers individually
rate products based on a relative basis as good, fair, or poor
rating. The presence of moisture in amounts greater than 5%
dissolves chemical components in dry blasting agents and alters the
composition of gases produced, contributing to the formation of
noxious fumes and lower energy output. Gelled granular products
have good water resistance, and certain water-based mixtures
have an excellent rating.
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Extreme low temperatures affect the stability as

well as the performance of explosives.
The sensitivity and detonation velocity are
hampered for certain water-based explosives at
low temperatures while dynamites can become
dangerously unstable below freezing temperatures.
Explosives manufacturers recommend the
appropriate range of temperature for
storage and use.
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VelocityThe detonation velocity is the speed at

which the detonation front moves through a column of
explosives.
For high explosives such as dynamite, the strength of an
explosive increases with detonation rate.
For dry blasting agents and water-based explosives, field
loading conditions greatly affect detonation velocity. Such
conditions include borehole diameter, density, confinement
within the borehole, the presence of water, and other
factors.
The speed of detonation is important when blasting in hard,
competent rock where a brisance effect
is desired for good fragmentation.
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The specific gas volume is the amount of gas created

by one kg of explosive under normal condition (o
degrees and 760 mm hg) expressed in liters/kg.
The explosion heat is the amount of energy released

upon detonation.
It is usually expressed in kj/kg. The effect of the

gas pressure wave depends on the amount of heat and
gas volume created by the explosion .In heat
expansion 30- 40 % of heat is converted into
mechanical work.
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The combined effect of specific gas volume and

explosion heat is that the heat released actually
expands the gases produced .
The greater the gas volume and the hotter the
gases ,the more effective the explosive is.
The performance of an explosive is not only
determined by the total energy released by the
explosion; it also depends on the rate of energy
release and how effectively the energy is utilised
for breaking and moving the blasted material.
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In short both the explosive properties and the

properties of the materials influence the explosives
effectiveness.
The charging density is the amount of explosive in a
certain hole volume .The higher the charging density
,the better the crushing ability of the explosive
charge .
The strength per unit volume gives the extracting
efficiency of an explosive at different charging
densities compared to the extracting efficiency of
dynamites at the same charging densities.
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The blast hole size is the first consideration of any

blast design. The blast hole diameter, along with the
type of explosive being used and the type of rock
being blasted, determines the burden (distance
from the blast hole to the nearest free face).
All other blast dimensions are a function of the
burden. This discussion assumes that the blaster
has the freedom to select the borehole size.
Many operations limit borehole size based on
available drilling equipment.
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Hole diameter
Charge per meter(kg/Mt)
254
70
230
50
203
45
178
30
152
20
140
16
127
12
115
10
102
89
4.3
76
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Practical blast hole diameters for surface

construction excavations range from 3 (75 mm) to
approximately 15 inches (38 cm). Large blast hole
diameters generally yield low drilling and blasting
costs because large holes are cheaper to drill per unit
volume, and less sensitive, cheaper blasting agents
can be used in larger diameter holes. Larger diameter
blast holes also allow large burdens and spacing and
can give coarser fragmentation.
.
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Spacing is defined as the distance between adjacent

blast holes, measured perpendicular to the burden.
Where the rows are blasted one after the other,
the spacing is measured between holes in a row.
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Spacing that is too wide causes inadequate

fracturing between holes, toe problems, and is
accompanied by humps on the face the spacing is
measured at an angle from the original free
face. is calculated as a function of the burden
Spacing
and also depends on the timing between holes.

Spacing that is too close causes crushing and
cratering between holes, large blocks in the burden,
and toe problems.
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The true spacing is twice the true burden, even though

the holes originally were drilled on a square pattern.
Field experience has shown that the use of millisecond
(ms) delays between holes in a row results in better
fragmentation and also reduces ground vibrations
produced by the blast. When ms delays are used
between holes in a row, the spacing-to-burden ratio
must be reduced to somewhere between 1.2 and
1.8, with 1.5 being a good first approximat ion
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The burden is defined as the distance from a

blast hole to the nearest free face at the
instant of detonation.
In multiple row blasts, the burden for a blast
hole is not necessarily measured in the direction
of the original free face.
The free faces developed by blast holes fired on
lower delay periods must be taken into account.
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It is very important that the proper burden be

calculated, accounting for the blast hole
diameter, relative density of the rock and
explosive, and, to some degree, the depth of the
blast hole.
An insufficient burden will cause excessive air blast
and fly rock. Too large a burden will produce
inadequate fragmentation, toe problems, and
excessive ground vibrations.
.
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For bulk-loaded charges (the charge is poured

down the hole), the charge diameter is equal to
the blast hole diameter. For tamped cartridges,
the charge diameter will be between the
cartridge diameter and the blast hole
diameter, depending on the degree of tamping.
For un tamped cartridges, the charge diameter
is equal to the cartridge diameter.
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The burden-to-charge-diameter ratio is seldom less than

20 or seldom more than 40, even in extreme cases. For
instance, when blasting with a low density blasting agent
such as ANFO in a dense formation such as basalt, the
desired burden may be about 20 times the charge
diameter. When blasting with denser slurries or
dynamites in low density formations such as sandstones,
the burden may approach 40 times the charge diameter.
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Air blast and fly rock often occur because of an insufficient

collar distance (stemming column) above the explosive charge.
As the blast hole diameter increases, the collar distance
required to prevent violence increases. The ratio of collar
distance to blast hole diameter required to prevent violence
varies from 14:1 to 28:1, depending on the relative densities
and velocities of the explosive and rock, the physical condition
of the rock, the type of stemming used, and the point of
initiation.
A larger collar distance is required where the sonic velocity
of the rock exceeds the detonation velocity of the explosive
or where the rock is heavily fractured or low density.
A top initiated charge requires a larger collar distance than a
bottom-initiated charge. As the collar distance increases, the
powder distribution becomes poorer, resulting in poorer
fragmentation of the rock in the upper part of the bench .
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Ground vibrations are controlled by reducing

the weight of explosive fired per delay
interval.
This is done more easily with small blast
holes than with large blast holes.
In many situations where large diameter
blast holes are used near populated areas,
several delays, along with decking, must be
used within each hole to control vibrations.
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Large holes with large blast patterns are best suited to an

operation with: (1) a large volume of material to be moved
(2) large loading, hauling, and crushing equipment
(3) no requirement for fine, uniform fragmentation.
(4) an easily broken toe
(5) few ground vibration or air blast problems (few nearby
buildings)
(6) a relatively homogeneous, easily fragmented rock without
many planes of weakness or voids. Many blasting jobs
have constraints that require smaller blast holes.
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Excessive sub grade drilling is unnecessary, expensive,

and may cause excessive ground vibrations because of
the high degree of confinement of the explosive in the
bottom of the blast hole, particularly when the primer
is placed in the bottom of the hole.
In multiple-bench operations, excessive sub drilling may
cause undue fracturing in the upper portion of the
bench below, creating difficulties in collaring holes in
the lower bench.
Insufficient sub drilling causes a high bottom, resulting
in increased wear and tear on equipment and expensive
secondary blasting or hand excavation in structural
foundations.
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Collar distance is the distance from the top of the

explosive charge to the collar of the blast hole. This zone
usually is filled with an inert material called stemming to
give some confinement to the explosive gases and to reduce
air blast.
A well-graded, crushed gravel works best as stemming, but it
is common practice to use drill cuttings because of
availability and economics.
Collar distances that are too short result in excessive
violence in the form of air blast and fly rock and may cause
back break.
(breaking beyond the back wall).
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Collar distances that are too long create large blocks in the
upper part of the muck pile. The selection of a collar
distance is often a trade off between fragmentation and
the amount of air blast and fly rock that can be tolerated.
This is true especially where the upper part of the bench
contains rock that is difficult to break or is of a different
type.
The difference between a violent blast and one that fails to
fragment the upper zone properly may be a matter of only
a few feet of stemming.
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Field experience has shown that a collar distance equal

to 70 percent of the burden is a good first
approximation.
Careful observation of air blast, fly rock, and
fragmentation will enable further refinement of this
dimension.
Where adequate fragmentation in the collar zone cannot
be attained while still controlling air blast and fly
rock, deck charges or satellite (mid-spaced) holes may
be Required
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A deck charge is an explosive charge near

the top of the blast hole, separated from
the main charge by inert stemming.
If large blocky materials are being created
in the collar zone and less stemming would
cause excessive Air blast or fly rock, the
main charge should be reduced
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Collar or direct priming (placing the

primer at or near the collar of the blast
hole with the blasting cap pointing
toward the bottom of the hole) of blast
holes normally causes more violence than
center or toe priming and requires the
use of a longer collar distance.
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Detonating fuse consists of a narrow tube filled

with high explosive.
When an explosion is initiated at one end by
means of
a detonator, the explosive wave travels
along the fuse with a high velocity and
causes the detonation of other high
explosives which lie in its path. Detonating
fuse is used for procuring the almost
simultaneous explosion of a number of
charges.
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Thank
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you
53

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Opencast mining

Drilling and blasting key

Drilling is used in mining for:

installation of rock bolts for support

installation of rock anchors for hanging of

Rotary percussive drilling achieves the breakage of rock by a combination of the

Feed or thrust load

Percussive drill bits break rock by repetitive impaction and indentation.

Drilled holes are included in the bit body, usually one

This type of bit features cylindrical tungsten

Top hammer rigs are used underground, in quarries and

In a compressed air rock drill, the supply line comes

In the case of an integral rotation system, the hexagonal drill

Compressed air drilling machine

Independent rotation is applied to drilling machines

For the same diameter piston the piston receives

The development of hydraulic rock drilling in

Surface mines and quarries

Down-the-hole (DTH), or In the hole (ITH), drills differ from

Hydraulic top hammer

More efficient than pneumatic.

High capital cost of rigs.

Low penetration rates.

The drill piston is powered by compressed air delivered

1.Rock mass properties

Detonation Theory: An explosive, or blasting agent, is a

The velocity of detonations lies in the approximate

Deflagration is the chemical burning of explosive

All commercial explosives are mixtures of carbon, hydrogen,

Density The density of an explosive is defined as the weight

LD or the weight of explosives one can load per unit length

The ability of an explosive to withstand exposure to water for long

Extreme low temperatures affect the stability as

VelocityThe detonation velocity is the speed at

The specific gas volume is the amount of gas created

The explosion heat is the amount of energy released

It is usually expressed in kj/kg. The effect of the

The combined effect of specific gas volume and

In short both the explosive properties and the

The blast hole size is the first consideration of any

Charge per meter(kg/Mt)

Practical blast hole diameters for surface

Spacing is defined as the distance between adjacent

Spacing that is too wide causes inadequate

and also depends on the timing between holes.

The true spacing is twice the true burden, even though

The burden is defined as the distance from a

It is very important that the proper burden be

For bulk-loaded charges (the charge is poured

The burden-to-charge-diameter ratio is seldom less than

Air blast and fly rock often occur because of an insufficient

Ground vibrations are controlled by reducing

Large holes with large blast patterns are best suited to an

Excessive sub grade drilling is unnecessary, expensive,

Collar distance is the distance from the top of the

a few feet of stemming.

Field experience has shown that a collar distance equal

A deck charge is an explosive charge near

Collar or direct priming (placing the

Detonating fuse consists of a narrow tube filled

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