Chapter 1

Airfoils & Wings

A- Definition:
An Airfoil is an aerodynamic shape
that provokes a reaction in order to
generate primarily lift with minimum
drag or air resistance

B. Airfoil characteristics
Any airfoil has two types of characteristics:
i. Design characteristics
ii. Performance characteristics
i. Design characteristics

The leading edge L/E: it is the part of

an airfoil that meets the air first.
Its shape depends on the operational
function of the airfoil.
If the airfoil is used at high speeds
then the L/E is thin and sharp
If the airfoil is used at low speeds then
the L/E is fat and thick

The trailing edge T/E: it is the back part of an airfoil

with the purpose of causing minimum turbulence when
the airflow leaves the airfoil
Upper camber: is the upper curvature of an airfoil and
plays an important role in generating lift, its is
generally 1.5 2.5 % longer than the lower camber.
lower camber: is the lower curvature of an airfoil that
encounters higher pressure than the upper surface and
plays a major role in creating lift.
Chordline: is an imaginary line joining the leading and
trailing edges of an airfoil, it is used as reference in
some important calculations.

. performance characteristics

Coefficient of Lift Cl : is a performance

number that indicates how much lift
the airfoil will generate with respect
to Angle Of Attack
Note: the airfoil will generate lift up
to the critical angle of attack which is
the maximum allowable angle not to
exceed.
If you exceed this critical angle, the
airfoil will stall.

Center of pressure Cp : is the point

through which the lift and drag act.
It is usually located behind the
center of gravity.
With increase in angle of attack the
center of pressure moves forward
and may surpass the C.G.
Its location is measured with
reference to the mean chord

Lift to drag ratio L/D: is an

indicative ratio that evaluates an
airfoils efficiency.
i.e. The higher the value of this
ratio, the more efficient is the
airfoil
This means that when lift increases
greatly, drag only increases with
very small increments.

Coefficient of Drag CD :
is an indicative value of
air resistance that an
airfoil generates when
moving through the air,
and with changes in
angle of attack.

C. ANGLES RELATED TO THE AIRFOIL

i. ANGLE OF ATTACK - AOA
Is the angle formed between the
chord and the direction of
relative wind, it can be positive
or negative, it is not a fixed
angle, it depends on the attitude
of the aircraft.

ii.

ANGLE OF INCIDENCE

Is the angle formed between the

chord and the longitudinal axis or
a line parallel to the longitudinal
axis, it is a fixed design value,
Note:and does not change with aircraft
attitude.
The wing
is usually designed with a profile
twist where the angle of incidence along
the wing from tip to root is not the same.
(ONLY BY A FEW DEGREES 2 TO 30)
When the angle of incidence at the root is
larger than at the tip, this is called
WASHOUT

WASHOU
T

iii-

Dihedral Angle

Is the angle formed between the

upward or downward inclination
of the wing in relation to the
lateral axis
Note:
Dihedral affects stability and has an
important role in minimizing sideslip.
A positive upward inclination = dihedral
angle
A negative downward inclination = Anhedral

D. AIRFOIL CENTERS
i. Center of Pressure

Cp

Is the point through which the lift and

drag act.
On a cambered airfoil, It is always
located behind the center of gravity
and aerodynamic center
With increase in angle of attack the
center of pressure moves forward
and may surpass the C.G.
But never quite reaches the AC but
only in stall.
Note:
When the aircraft approaches stall, the
Cp moves forward towards the AC,

ii. Aerodynamic Center - AC

Is the point around which all
changes in lift EFFECTIVELY ACT.
In other words, when the angle of
attack increase or decrease, the
total lift changes and the center
of pressure moves, but the net
effect is as if the change in
moment and lift occurs at the AC.
Note:
On all airfoils the AC is at quarter
chord, meaning 25% from the

iii. Center of Gravity

Is an imaginary point in which all
mass/weight is said to be
concentrated.
It is normally located between the
AC and the Cp
The thrust and weight act through
the CG.

Note:
For location purposes, the CG is
referenced in all calculations
against the mean aerodynamic