Power and machine

Lecture 2 and 3
<Dr Mona Fouad>
Contact details: mona.moussa@asst.edu

Magnetism

etic fields are an essential element in the conversion of mechan

energy to electrical energy and vice versa

Sources of magnetic fields:

Permanent magnets

Current carrying conductors

(a) Permanent Magnets

Unlike magnet poles
Attract

Like magnet poles

Repulse

agnetic lines of force that move from N to S

They form closed loops

(b) Current Carrying Conductors

Direction can be determined

using the right hand grasp rule

Magnetic Flux and Magnetic Flux Density

(a) Magnetic Flux ()
Total number of magnetic lines of force present in a
magnetic field
Unit.. Weber (wb)

(b) Magnetic Flux Density (B)

It is a measure of the concentration of the magnetic flux

per unit area
Unit Tesla

B = /A (wb/m2) or Tesla

(c) Magnetomotive Force (Fm)

In a magnetic circuit, a magnetic flux is created when a magnetomoti

(m.m.f ) acts on the circuit

Fm = NI (AT)
N: number of turns

I: Current flowing through c

(d) Reluctance (Rm)

In a magnetic circuit Rm, is the opposition offered by the
magnetic circuit
To the establishment of the magnetic flux by the m.m.f

Rm = Fm/ (AT/wb)

Fm

Rm

(e) Permanence (Pm)

Permanence is defined as the ability of the magnetic circuit to
permit the
Establishment of a magnetic field

Pm = 1/Rm (wb/AT)

(it is more convenient to use Pm in making calculations in parallel magnetic ci

(f) Permeability ()
Permeability is a measure of the ease with which a magnetic
field may be
Established
It could be given as the permanence per unit length and cross
sectional area of a magnetic field

= Pm l /A = l/A Rm (wb / AT.m)

(l: length of magnetic circuit, A: cross sectional area of magnetic circuit, R m: R

Note the following

In electric circuits conductor materials are compared according
to its
Resistivity (), R = l/A
In magnetic circuits conductor materials are compared by
means of its
permeability (), = Pml/A wb/AT.m
Permeability of free space (0)= 410-7 wb/AT.m
For magnetic materials, permeability is given as follows:
= 0 r
Where r = 1 for air and non magnetic materials
= (500-2500) for iron and steel

r is dimensionless

(g) Magnetic field intensity (H)

It is the magnetomotive force per unit length

H = Fm/l (AT/m)
l: length of magnetic circuit

Note
As Rm = Fm /, then Pm = /Fm and since =Pml/A
Then = (l) / (FmA) = B/H

Magnetization Curves

Magnetic flux () is produced by passing an electric current through

a coil that
Creates a m.m.f
To have an effective comparison between materials , they are
compared in terms
Of unit quantities (Flux density B and Magnetizing force H)

B-H Curve

Saturation
Upper knee
Linear B-H, maximum permeability

Lower knee

The B-H curve is divided into 4 regions:

Lower Knee: indicates alignment of magnetic domain whos

are nearly parallel to the applied magnetic

Linear Part: movement of most domains into alignment wi

applied magnetic field (BH , is constant an

Upper Knee: increasing magnetizing force that must be app

force the alignment of all domains with the
magnetic field (B is not proportional to H and

Saturation:

region where most domains have been aligne

external magnetic field

(no more increase of B and is approaching Zer

B-H Curves for different materials

1.Sheet steel
2.Silicon steel
3.Cast steel
4.Tungsten steel
5.Magnet steel
6.Cast iron
7.Nickel
8.Cobalt
9.Magnetite

Scaled B-H Curves for different materials

Magnetic Circuits versus Electric Circuits

Magnetomotive Force Fm

Flux

Reluctance Rm

Electromotive Force

Current I

Resistance R

Items

Magnetic Circuit

Electric Circuit

Driving
Force

m.m.f (Fm = NI =
Hl)

e.m.f (E)

Produces

Flux ( = Fm/Rm)

Current (I=E/R)

Limited by

Reluctance (Rm
=l/A)

Resistance
(R=l/A)

Amperes circuital law

The algebraic sum of the magnetomotive force drops around a magne

Is equal to the applied magnetomotive force

Fm = Fm1 + Fm2 + Fm3 +......................... +

= H1l1 + H2l2 + H3l3 +. +H

Parallel magnetic circuits

Rab

Rfa
T

Fm

Rbc

Rbe
Ref

Rde

Rcd

Air Gaps and their effects

In many applications, magnetic flux must cross one or
more air gaps

he magnetic lines of force cross the air gap, they spread out because the
ndividual lines repel each other. This spreading out is called Fringing

Fm

Rm

Rg

n the analysis of magnetic circuits, the following is assumed:

Neglect the fringing effect in the air gap region

The magnetic flux density is uniform within the magnetic material

Magnetic flux is restricted to flow within the magnetic material with no
leakage

Machines Losses

1) Copper Losses: In the windings (PCu Losses = I2R)

2) Mechanical Losses: arise owing to the rotation of rotating parts (fr

3) Magnetic Losses: (a) Eddy Current losses (b) Hysteresis Losses

Eddy Currents Losses

An alternating magnetic field linking a closed

conductor system will induce a voltage in the
conductor system, this will produce eddy
currents in the magnetic circuits of different
machines
Eddy currents, just like any other
electrical currents, are affected by the
resistance of the material in which
the currents flow
The resistance of any material is
inversely proportional to its crosssectional area

View A, shows the eddy currents induced in an armature core that is a

solid piece of soft iron. View B, shows a soft iron core of the same size,
but made up of several small pieces insulated from each other. This
process is called lamination. The currents in each piece of the laminated
core are considerably less than in the solid core because the resistance
of the pieces is much higher.

Lamination of iron core decreases the cross-sectional area of

each piece, thus
Increasing its resistance leading to smaller eddy current values
2
and the heat
loss
I
R is reduced
K : constant

Peddy loss = KeF22B2m

: Laminations thickness (m
Bm : Flux density (T)
F : Frequency (Hz)

Hysteresis Loop

magnetic material is said to be fully saturated when its permeability

becomes almost the same as that of free space (H is so high)
H is lowered by decreasing the current in the coil, B will not decrease
as rapid as it increased (the B-H curve will not retrace itself), this
irreversibility is called Hysteresis (B lags H)
when H is reduced to zero, residual flux density B r will appear meaning th

the magnetic material has been magnetized

Hysteresis Curve

Residual flux density: Br

High Br: hard magnetic mate

Low Br : Soft magnetic mater

Hysteresis Losses
When aferromagneticmaterial
is magnetized in one direction,
it will not relax back to zero
magnetization when the
imposed magnetizing field is
removed. It must be driven back
zero
by a fieldmagnetic
in the opposite
Iftoan
alternating
field is
applied todirection
the material, its
magnetization will trace out a
loop called ahysteresis loop. The
lack of retraceability of the
Once the magnetic domains
magnetization curve is the
are reoriented, it takes
property called hysteresis and it
some energy to turn them
is related to the existence of
back again
magnetic domainsin the material
The area enclosed by the hysteresis loop represents the power loss
involved in
overcoming theK retained
magnetic field
: constant

PHys loss = KH F Bnm

n: Steinmetz constant (1.25

Bm : Flux density (T)
F : Frequency (Hz)

Pcore = Peddy + PHyst =KeF22B2m+ KH F Bnm

KH : constant
Ke : constant
Bm : Flux density (T)
F : Frequency (Hz)

n: Steinmetz constant (1.25-2.5

: Laminations thickness (m)

Example

(1)

A magnetic flux density of 0.2 wb/m2 is to

be produced in a toroid of cast steel, the
mean diameter of the toroid is 10 cm.
Calculate the required current and the
relative permeability of cast steel if a coil of
1000 turns is wound around the toroid

Solution
Fm = Hl = NI, then I = Hl/N
l = d = 3.140.1 = 0.314 m
From cast steel B-H curve, at B = 0.2 Tesla, H
= 250 AT/m, then: I = (2500.314/1000) =
0.0785 A
= 0 r = B/H = 0.2/250 = 0.0008,
then r = 0.0008/410-7 = 637

(2)

Example

A magnetic flux density of 1.5 wb/m2 is to

be produced in a toroid of cast steel, the
mean diameter of the toroid is 10 cm.
Calculate the required current and the
relative permeability of cast steel if a coil of
1000 turns is wound around the toroid

Solution
Fm = Hl = NI, then I = Hl/N
l = d = 3.140.1 = 0.314 m
r is not constant

From cast steel B-H curve, at B = 1.5 Tesla H =

4000 AT/m, then I = (40000.314/1000) = 1.26 A
= 0 r = B/H = 1.5/4000 = 0.006, then r =
0.006/410-7
=

for one type of

material

(3)

Example

An electromagnet of square cross-section

similar to the one shown in figure has a tight
wound coil of 1500 turns. The inner and
outer diameter are 10 and 12 cm
respectively, the length of air gap is 1 cm. if
the current in the coil is 4A and the relative
Permeability of the magnetic material is
1200, Determine the flux density in the
Solution
magnetic circuit

N=1500

1 cm

B = /A, and = NI/Rtotal where Rtotal = Rm+ Rg

Rm = lm/ Am and Rg = lg / 0Ag

l = lmean = 2rmean = 2 (12+10)/2 = 69.12 cm

Fm

Then lm =69.12-1 = 68.12 cm, Am = Ag =22= 4 cm2

Rm

Rg

Rm = 68.1210-2/410-7100410-4 = 1.129106 AT/wb

Rg = 110-2/410-7410-4 = 19.894106 AT/wb

Rtotal = Rm+Rg = 21.023106 AT/wb, then = 15004/21.023106 = 285.4

B = 285.410-6/ 410-4 = 0.714 Tesla