Historical Research

What is Historical Research?

The systematic collection and evaluation of data to
describe, explain, and understand actions or events
that occurred sometime in the past.
There is no manipulation or control of variables as in
experimental research.
An attempt is made to reconstruct what happened
during a certain period of time as completely and
accurately as possible.

The Purposes
of Historical Research
To make people aware of what has happened in
the past in order to:

Learn from past failures and successes

Apply them to present-day problems
Make predictions
Test hypotheses concerning relationships or trends
Understand present educational practices and
policies more fully

Steps Involved
in Historical Research
Defining the Problem
Locating relevant sources

Documents
Numerical records
Oral statements
Relics

Summarizing information obtained from

historical sources
Evaluation of historical sources
Internal criticism
External criticism

Categories of Sources
Documents
Written or printed materials that have been produced in some
form or another.

Numerical records
Considered as a separate type of source in and of themselves
or as a subcategory of documents.

Oral Statements
Are stories or other forms of oral expression that leave a
record for future generations.

Relics
Are any objects whose physical or visual characteristics can
provide some information about the past.

Primary vs. Secondary Sources

Primary source
one prepared by an individual who was a
participant in or a direct witness to the event being
described.

Secondary source
a document prepared by an individual who was not
a direct witness to an event, but who obtained a
description of the event from someone else.

Data Analysis
in Historical Research
Historical researchers use the following
methods to make sense out of large amounts
of data:

Theoretical model leading to a content analysis

Use of patterns or themes
Coding system
Quantitative data to validate interpretations

Advantages and Disadvantages

of Historical Research
Advantages
Permits investigation
of topics and
questions that can
be studied in no
other fashion

Disadvantages
Cannot control for
threats to internal validity
Limitations are imposed
due to the content
analysis
Researchers cannot
ensure representation of
the sample

Action Research
The word "academic" is a
synonym for irrelevant. (Alinsky,
1969)

What is Action Research?

Action Research is conducted by one or more individuals
or groups for the purpose of solving a problem or
obtaining information in order to inform local practice.
Such studies are seriously limited in generalizability.

Why Action Research?

Teachers do not find research persuasive
or authoritative.
Mainstream research has not been
relevant to practice nor has it addressed
teachers questions.
Findings from research often not
expressed in ways that are
comprehensible to teachers.

Key Characteristics of Action

Research
Persuasive and Authoritative
Teachers are invested in the legitimacy of the
findings.

Relevant
Think Stanovich and multiple causation

Accessible
Problem solving approach
Not a fad
Good teachers have always systematically looked at
the effects of their teaching.

Basic Assumptions Underlying Action Research

Assumption

Example

Teachers and other education

professionals have the authority to
make decisions.

A team of teachers, after discussions with the school

administration, decide to meet weekly to revise the
mathematics curriculum to make it more relevant to lowachieving students.

Teachers and other education

professionals want to improve their
practice.

A group of teachers decide to observe each other on a weekly

basis and then discuss ways to improve their teaching.

Teachers and other education

professionals are committed to
continual professional development.
Teachers and other education
professionals will and can engage in
systematic research.

The entire staffadministration, teachers, counselors, and

clerical staffof an elementary school go on a retreat to plan
ways to improve the attendance and discipline policies for the
school.
Following up on the example just listed above, the staff decides
to collect data by reviewing the attendance records of chronic
absentees over the past year, to interview a random sample of
attendees and absentees to determine why they differ, to hold
a series of after-school roundtable sessions between
discipline-prone students and faculty to identify problems and
discuss ways to resolve issues of contention, and to establish
a mentoring system in which selected students can serve as
counselors to students needing help with their assigned work.

Assumptions Underlying
Action Research
A number of assumptions underlie action
research:
Participants have the authority to make decisions
Those involved are seriously committed to improving
their performance
Educators and others involved in schools want to
engage in research systematically
Those performing the research will make the
necessary changes and recommendations

Types of Action Research

There are two main types of action research:

1)

Practical Action Research

2)

Addresses a specific problem

Primary purpose is to improve practice and inform larger
issues
A how to approach

Participatory Action Research

Philosophically driven
Empower individuals and groups to improve their lives and
bring about a social change
Stakeholders are involved and are active in all processes

Levels of Participation
Provide information
Become informed of
purpose of the study
Receive findings
Assist in data
collection
Review findings

Participate in
interpretation
Participate in designing
the project
Participate in problem
specification
Initiate study

Steps in Action Research

There are four steps or stages in Action

Research:
1)
2)
3)
4)

Identifying the research question

Gathering the necessary information
Analyzing and interpreting the information
Developing a plan of action

Advantages of Action Research

It can be performed by anyone, in any type of school or
institution
It can help to improve educational practice
It can help education and other professionals to improve
their craft
It can help them learn to identify problems systematically
It can build up a small community of research-oriented
individuals at the local level

Similarities and Differences Between Action Research &

Formal Quantitative and Qualitative Research
Action Research

Formal Research

Systematic inquiry.

Systematic inquiry.

Goal is to solve problems of local concern.

Goal is to develop and test theories and to

produce knowledge generalizable to wide
population.

Little formal training required to conduct such

studies.

Considerable training required to conduct such

studies.

Intent is to identify and correct problems.

Intent is to investigate larger issues, of local

concern.

Carried out by teacher or other local education

professional.

Carried out by researcher who is not usually

involved in local situation.

Uses primarily teacher-developed instruments.

Uses primarily professionally-developed

instruments.

Less rigorous.

More rigorous.

Usually value-based.

Frequently value-neutral.

Purposive samples selected.

Random samples (if possible) preferred.

Selective opinions of researcher often

considered as data.

Selective opinions of researcher never

considered as data.

Generalizability is very limited.

Generalizability often appropriate.

Participatory Action Research

I think if the academic does the research
you are doing a disservice to the
community.
Do you agree with this statement?
Why or why not?
In your opinion, what is the role of
academics, or outsiders, in PAR?