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Picture credit:
euler totient graph
http://www.123exp-math.com/t/01704079357/
Contents:
Chapter 2. Groups
Definition and
Examples
Elementary Properties
Chapter 3: Finite Groups;
Subgroups
Terminology and
Notation
Subgroup Tests
Examples of Subgroups
Chapter 4: Cyclic Groups
Properties of Cyclic
Groups
Classifications of
Subgroups of
Cyclic Groups
Definition of a Group
A Group G is a collection of elements
together with a binary operation* which
satisfies the following properties:
Closure
Associativity
Identity
Inverses
* A binary operation is a function on G
which assigns an element of G to each
ordered pair of elements in G. For
example, multiplication and addition are
binary operations.
rubic cube permutation group
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Permutation_group
Classification of Groups
Groups may be Finite or Infinite;
that is, they may contain a finite
number of elements,
or an infinite number of elements.
Also, groups may be
Commutative or
Non-Commutative,
that is, the commutative property
may or may not apply to all
elements of the group.
Commutative groups are also
called Abelian groups.
Abelian... Isn't that a one followed by a
bunch of zeros?
- anonymous grad student in MAT
program
Examples of Groups
Examples of Groups:
Infinite, Abelian:
The Integers under Addition (Z. +)
The Rational Numbers without 0 under multiplication (Q*, X)
Infinite, Non-Abelian:
The General Linear Groups (GL,n), the nonsingular nxn matrices
under matrix multiplication
Finite, Abelian:
The Integers Mod n under Modular Addition (Zn , +)
The U groups, U(n), defined as Integers less than n and
relatively prime to n, under modular multiplication.
Finite, Non-Abelian:
The Dihedral Groups Dn the permutations on a regular n-sided
figure under function composition.
The Permutation Groups Sn, the one to one and onto functions
from a set to itself under function composition.
euler totient graph
http://www.123exp-math.com/t/01704079357/
Properties of a Group:
Closure
Example:
The Integers under Addition, (Z, +)
1 and 2 are elements of Z,
1+2 = 3, also an element of Z
Non-Examples:
The Odd Integers are not closed under
Addition. For example, 3 and 5 are odd
integers, but 3+5 = 8 and 8 is not an odd
integer.
The Integers lack inverses under
Multiplication, as do the Rational numbers
(because of 0.) However, if we remove 0 from
the Rational numbers, we obtain an infinite
closed group under multiplication.
"members only"
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/index.html?
curid=12686870
Caution:
In Matrix Multiplication,
(A*B)*C=A*(B*C).
In function composition,
f*(g*h) = (f*g)*h.
associative loop
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_algebraic_structures
|1 0| = I
|0 1|
Properties of a Group:
Inverses
The inverse of an element, combined with that element, gives the
identity.
Inverses are unique. That is, each element has exactly
one inverse, and no two distinct elements have the same inverse.
The uniqueness of inverses is used in proofs.
For example...
In (Z,+), the inverse of x is -x.
In (Q*, X), the inverse of x is 1/x.
In (Zn, +), the inverse of x is n-x.
In abstract algebra, the inverse of an element a is usually written a-1.
This is why (GL,n) and (SL, n) do not include singular matrices; only
nonsingular matrices have inverses.
In Zn, the modular integers, the group operation is understood to be
addition, because if n is not prime, multiplicative inverses do not
exist, or are not unique.
The U(n) groups are finite groups under modular multiplication.
Abelian Groups
Abelian Groups are groups which have the
Commutative property, a*b=b*a for all a and b in G.
This is so familiar from ordinary arithmetic on Real
numbers, that students who are new to Abstract
Algebra must be careful not to assume that it
applies to the group on hand.
Abelian groups are named after Neils Abel, a
Norwegian mathematician.
http://www.math.sunysb.edu/~joa/MAT313/hw-VIII---313.html
http://www.math.csusb.edu/faculty/susan/modular/modular.html
Non-Abelian Groups
Some examples of Non-Abelian
groups are:
Dn, the transformations on a regular nsided figure under function composition
(GL,n), the non-singular square matrices
of order n under matrix multiplication
(SL,n), the square matrices of order n
with determinant = 1under matrix
multiplication
Sn, the permutation groups of degree n
under function composition
An, the even permutation groups of
degree n under function composition
permutation group A4
http://faculty.smcm.edu/sgoldstine/origami/displaytext.html
permutation group s5
http://www.valdostamuseum.org/hamsmith/PDS3.html
D3 knot
http://www.math.utk.edu/
~morwen/3d_pics/more_
d3.html
reflections of a triangle
http://www.answers.com/topic/di
hedral-group
euler portrait
http://www.math.oh
iostate.edu/~sinnott/
ReadingClassics/h
omepage.html
Cancellation and
Conjugation
In any group,
a*b=a*c implies that b=c and
c*a=b*a implies that c=b.
This is used in proofs.
To conjugate an element a by x
means to multiply thus:
xax-1 or x-1ax
While conjugating an element
may change its value, the order
|a| is preserved.
This is useful in proofs and in
solving matrix equations.
cancellation and conjugation
http://keelynet.com/indexfeb206.htm
Subgroup Tests:
The One Step Subgroup Test
Suppose G is a group and H is a non-empty
subset of G.
If, whenever a and b are in H,
ab-1 is also in H,
then H is a subgroup of G.
Or, in additive notation:
ab
-1
Subgroup Tests:
The Two Step Subgroup Test
Let G be a group and H a
nonempty subset of G. If a b is in
H whenever a and b are in H, and
a-1 is in H whenever a is in H, then
H is a subgroup of G.
http://www.trekearth.com/gallery/Asia/Brunei/photo653317.htm
Subgroup Tests:
The Finite Subgroup Test
Let H be a nonempty
finite subset of G. If H
is closed under the
group operation, then
H is a subgroup of G.
Examples of Subgroups:
cyclic subgroups
Let G be a group, and a an element of G.
Let <a> = {an , where n is an integer},
(that is, all powers of a.)
...Or, in additive notation,,,
For example:
In R*, <2>, the powers of 2,
form a subgroup of R*.
In Z, <2>, the even numbers,
form a subgroup.
In Z8, the integers mod 8,
<2>={2,4,6,0}
is a subgroup of Z8.
In D3, the dihedral group of
order 6, <R120> = {R0, R120, R240}
is a subgroup of D3
Examples of Subgroups:
The Center of a Group Z(G)
The Center of a
Group is a
Subgroup of that
group.
Examples of Subgroups:
element C(a):
For any element a in G,
the Centralizer of a,
written C(a)
is the set
of all elements of G
which commute with a.
In an Abelian group,
C(a) is the entire group.
In a non-Abelian group,
C(a) may consist only of
the identity, a, and a-1,
or it may include other
elements as well.
Cyclic Groups
A Cyclic Group is a group
which can be generated by
one of its elements.
That is, for some a in G,
G={an | n is an element of Z}
Or, in addition notation,
G={na |n is an element of Z}
This element a
(which need not be unique) is called a
generator of G.
Alternatively, we may write G=<a>.
http://www.math.csusb.edu/faculty/susan/modular/modular.html
Examples:
(Z,.+) is generated by 1 or -1.
Zn, the integers mod n
under modular addition,
is generated by 1
or by any element k in Zn
which is relatively prime to n.
Non-Examples:
Q* is not a cyclic group,
although it contains an infinite
number of cyclic subgroups.
U(8) is not a cyclic group.
Dn is not a cyclic group although
it contains a cyclic subgroup
<R(360/n)>
Criterion for a = a
i
For |a| = n,
ai = aj iff n divides (i-j)
(alternatively, if i=j mod n.)
Or, in additive notation,
ia = ja iff i=j mod n.
Corollaries:
1. |a|=|<a>| that is,
the order of an element is
equal to the order of the
cyclic group generated by
that element.
2. If ak=e then the order of
a divides k.
math cartoons from
http://www.math.kent.edu/~sather/ugcolloq.html
j
For example, in Z5,
2x4 = 7x4 = 3 because
2=7 mod 5
For example...
in Z10, |2|=5 and
<2>={2,4,6,8,0}
gcd(n,k)
>
Corollary 1: When
are cyclic subgroups
equal to one another?
Let |a|=n.
Then <ai>=<aj> iff
gcd(n,i)=gcd(n,j)
This gives us an easy
way to specify the
generators of a group,
the generators of its
subgroups, and to tell
how these are related.
gcd(n,k)
Corollary 2: Generators of
Cyclic Groups
In any cyclic group G=<a>
with order n,
the generators are ak
for each k relatively prime to n.
This gives an easy way
to find all of the
generators
of a cyclic group.
gcd(n,k)
Corollary 3
specifies this for Zn , the integers mod n under modular addition.
gauss stamp
Since any Zn is a cyclic group of order n,
http://webpages.math.luc.
edu/~ajs/courses/322sprin
its generators would be the positive integers less than n
g2004/worksheets/ws5.ht
ml
and relatively prime to n.
1. Every subgroup of a
For example
consider Z10 = <1> with |1|=10.
Let a=1.
Every subgroup of Z10 is also cyclic.
The divisors of 10 are 1, 2, 5, and 10.
>
n/
k
For example
consider Z10 = <1> with |1|=10.
Let a=1.
Every subgroup of Z10 is also cyclic.
The divisors of 10 are 1, 2, 5, and 10.
For each of these divisors we have
exactly one subgroup of Z10, that is,
<1>, the group itself, with order 10/1=10
<2>={0,2,4,6,8} with order 10/2 = 5
<5>={0,5} with order 10/5 = 2
<10>={0} with order 10/10=1
The order of each of these subgroups is
a divisor of the order of the group, 10.
So the generators of Z10 would be 1, and
the remaining elements: 3, 7, and 9..
Permutation Groups
Definition
Definitions
A Permutation of a set A
is a function
from A to A
which is both one to one
and onto
So in a Permutation on set A,
the range and the domain of the
function are both the set A.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Permutation_group
Permutation Groups
Definitions
Definitions:
Permutation Groups
Notations
Notations
In other areas such as algebra and
calculus, functions are defined on
infinite sets and often written as
algebraic formulas.
However, in this context we usually
define a function explicitly, by listing
an element of the domain along side
its corresponding function value.
There are two ways this is
commonly done: grid notation (due
to Euler) and cycle notation (due to
Cauchy).
math cartoons from
http://www.math.kent.edu/~sather/ugcolloq.html
Permutation Groups
Notations
Example, D4, the symmetries of a Square
Consider D4, the symmetry group of a
square. We can represent this group as
a permutation group in grid notation as
follows.
Number the four corners of the square:
1,2,3,4 as shown.
Permutation Groups
Definitions and Notation
S3 and Sn
Let S3 be the group of all one to one
functions from the set {1, 2, 3} to itself.
This is the same as saying, all
arrangements or permutations of these
three elements.
Cycle
Notation
Cycle
Notation
Definitions, Examples
Even Permutation
Odd Permutation
If a permutation can be
written as an odd number of
two cycles, we say it is an
odd permutation.
If a permutation can be
written as an even number of
two cycles, we say it is an
even permutation.
(12345) = (15)(14)(13)(12)
(1234) = (14)(13)(12)
(1234)(247)=(14)(13)(12)(27)(24)
An
permutation group A4
http://faculty.smcm.edu/sgoldstine/origami/display
text.html
Permutation group A5
http://www.math.metu.edu.tr/~berkman/466object.html
Suggested Activities
Cycle Notation,
more practice
Cycle notation,
introduced by Cauchy,
has many advantages
over Euler's grid
notation, although some
people may require more
practice to perform
calculations quickly and
accurately in this
notation.
For practice, try verifying
the Cauchy table for A4
on page 105 of the text,
by multiplying out each
pair of elements and
showing that the product
is as stated in the table.
Suggested Activities
Reinforcement of Knowledge
Base
Modern educational practices tend to
de-emphasize knowledge base in
favor of constructivist education
theory, which is thought to better
support higher order thinking.
However, for most people*, an
extensive knowledge base is
necessary for mastery of this subject.
Please see the textbook author
Gallians comments this matter, on
his website
http://www.d.umn.edu/~jgallian under
the heading Advice for students for
learning abstract algebra
*Sylvester notwithstanding, text pg 89
Tools 3 www.istockphoto.com
tools and rocks www.dkimages.com
Suggested Activities:
Reinforcement of Knowledge Base according to
individual learning style
Often students complain that memorizing facts
and definitions is excessively difficult, or that
knowledge obtained this way does not seem to
apply to testing or problem solving situations.
Complaints like this often result from failure to
adapt study habits to one's particular learning
style. For example, a visual learner may get by
with simply reading over text or notes, while an
aural learner may need to say lessons out loud or
even set them to music. A kinesthetic learner
often needs to re-write the lessons, make models,
demonstrate the information to others, etc.
Although kinesthetic methods are more demanding
in terms of time and energy, all learners benefit
from kinesthetic learning methods, because these
methods produce more robust memory traces in the
brain.
Suggested Activities:
Suggested Activities:
Suggested Activities:
http://www.mathwire.com/seasonal/winter07.html
Acknowledgments
Dr. T. Englund, Professor of Mathematics, Central Washington University,
professor for Mathematics 461
Dr. T. Willard, Professor of Mathematics, Central Washington University,
graduate adviser
I am grateful for the cooperation of the following fourth year undergraduate
Mathematics students at Central Washington University, who included me in their
study group for the final exam. Notes from this study group were then composed
into this presentation:
Amber Goodrich, Mike Prothman, Russel Hess,
David Melik, Geoff LaBrandt,
Brandon Belieu,
Special thanks to:
Two Bears, my brother
St. Euler
St. Cauchy
All graphics in this presentation not created by J. Pinkney are reproduced from online sources
according to the Fair Use Provisions of the U.S. Copyright Act, with the html sources cited in the frame
on which they appear.