McGraw-Hill/Irwin

Copyright 2009 by The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All

Motivation:
Background and Theories
Organizations: Behavior, Structure, Processes
Chapter 5

Learning Objectives
Define

motivation in practical terms that

would be meaningful to managers in
organizations

Compare

the content and process

explanations and theories of motivation

Describe

how equity theory explains

employees reactions to pay and
compensation decisions

5-3

Learning Objectives
Discuss

why individual needs and

preferences change over the course
of a career

Explain

the motivational force for a

behavior, action, or task
As

a function of three distinct

perceptions made by an individual

5-4

Motivation Puzzle
Managers

must excel at addressing

the needs and goals of employees
No

one motivational approach works for all

Individuals

differ in

Their

desired rewards
How they attempt to satisfy those needs
How they view the fairness of rewards
Their view of the work environment

5-5

Key Employee Differences

Veterans

(born 1922-45)

Believe

in hard work, dedication, sacrifice,

and respect for authority
Have a great deal or organizational
knowledge and remain influential
Boomers

(born 1946-64)

Characterized

by optimism, teamwork,
healthy lifestyles, personal gratification
Will go the extra mile to get the job done
Enjoy their careers
5-6

Key Employee Differences

Gen

Xers (born 1965-76)

Understands

the importance of diversity,

work-life balance, self-reliance, fun, and
informality
More cynical than other generations
Their its only a job attitude puts them
in direct conflict with Boomers

5-7

Key Employee Differences

Gen

Yers (born 1977-97)

Nexters,

Internet Gen, or Echo Boomers

Workplace

preferences

A fair

boss
Belief in the company
Workplace safety
Training and learning opportunities
Flexible work schedules
Constructive feedback
Timely and fair reward systems
5-8

Motivation
Theorists

have different interpretations

and place emphasis on different factors
Motivation

is related to behavior and

performance
Goal-directedness is involved
It results from events and processes,
whether internal or external
Research is still evolving
Many aspects of human motivation
remain unexplained
5-9

Motivation

Motivation

is the result of forces acting

on an employee that initiate and direct
behavior
5-10

Motivation
Motivated

employees

Look

for the best way to do their job

Produce high-quality products or services
Are more likely to be productive
Want to work and become part of the team
Help, support, and encourage coworkers
Are self-confident and decisive

5-11

Motivation Starting Point

Individuals
All

have a deficiency or lack something

at a particular point in time
Are more susceptible to motivational
efforts when in need
Deficiencies

may be

Physiological
Psychological
Sociological

5-12

The Motivational Process

I

VI

Employee
reassesses need
deficiencies
V

Rewards or
punishments

Need
deficiencies

II Search for

ways to
satisfy needs

The
Employee

IV

III

Goal-directed
behavior

Performance
(evaluate goals
accomplished)

5-13

Motivation Theories
Content

Motivation Theories

Focuses

on factors within a person that

energize, direct, sustain, stop behavior
These factors can only be inferred
Process

Motivation Theories

Describe,

explain, and analyze how

behavior is energized, directed, sustained,
and stopped

5-14

Managerial Effectiveness
Content

theories suggest that

managers
Determine

what employee needs trigger

desired behaviors
Offer meaningful rewards that satisfy
those needs
Know when to offer rewards to optimize
behavior
Understand that need deficiencies do
not repeat in a regular pattern
5-15

Managerial Effectiveness
Process

theories suggest that

managers understand
The

process of motivation
How individuals make choices based
on preferences, rewards, and
accomplishments

5-16

Theory Founders
Content

theory founders

Maslowneed

hierarchy
AlderferERG theory
Herzbergtwo-factor theory
McClellandlearned needs
Process

theory founders

Vroomexpectancy

of choices

Adamsequity
Skinnerreinforcement
Lockegoal-setting
5-17

Application of Theories
Content

theory

Managers

must be aware of differences

in needs, desires, and goals because each
individual is unique

Process

theory

Managers

must understand the process

of motivation and how individuals make
choices based on performances, rewards,
and accomplishments

5-18

Content Theories of Motivation

Human

needs, as defined by Maslows

need hierarchy
Physiological
Safety

and security
Belongingness, social, and love
Esteem
Self-actualization

5-19

Content Theories of Motivation

Maslows

need hierarchy assumes

A person

attempts to satisfy basic needs

before trying to satisfy upper-level needs
Lower-level needs must be satisfied
before a higher-level need begins
to control a persons behavior
A satisfied need ceases
to motivate

5-20

Content Theories of Motivation

Alderfer

proposes a hierarchy involving

three sets of needs
Existence

satisfied by such things

as food, air, water, pay, and working
conditions
Relatedness satisfied by meaningful
social and interpersonal relationships
Growth satisfied by making creative
or productive contributions

5-21

ERG Theory
Relationships Among
Frustration, Importance, Satisfaction of Needs

Frustration
of growth needs

Importance
of growth needs

Frustration of
relatedness needs

Importance of
relatedness needs

Frustration
of existence needs

Importance
of existence needs

Satisfaction
of growth needs

Satisfaction of
relatedness needs

Satisfaction of
existence needs

5-22

Herzbergs Two-Factor Theory

Extrinsic

factors

Pay,

status, and working conditions

Known as dissatisfiers or hygiene factors
Intrinsic

factors

Achievement,

increased
responsibility, recognition
Known as satisfiers or
motivators

5-23

Traditional View vs. Herzberg

High job dissatisfaction

I. TRADITIONAL VIEW

High job satisfaction

II. HERZBERGS TWO-FACTOR VIEW

Low job
satisfaction

Motivators
Feeling of achievement
Meaningful work
Opportunity for advancement Increased responsibility
Recognition
Opportunity for growth

Low job
dissatisfaction
Pay
Working conditions
Interpersonal relations

Hygienes
Status
Fringe benefits

High job
satisfaction

High job
dissatisfaction
Job security
Policies/Procedures

5-24

Learned Needs Theory

person with a strong need will use

appropriate behaviors to satisfy the need
Needs

society

are learned from the culture of a

5-25

McClellands Learned Needs Theory

Achievement

(n Ach)

High

n Ach persons prefer moderate goals

they think they can achieve

Affiliation

(n Aff)

High

n Aff persons prefer immediate and

reliable performance feedback

Power

(n Pow)

High

n Ach persons like to be responsible

for solving problems
5-26

Measuring n Ach Needs

Needs

are measured with the Thematic

Apperception Test (TAT)
A person

is shown a picture and asked to

write a story about it
People tend to write stories that reflect
their dominant needs
5-27

n Ach Needs
McClelland

encourages managers to

Provide

periodic feedback on performance

Point out models of achievement to
employees
Work with employees to improve their
self-image
Introduce realism into all work-related
topics

5-28

Comparison of Content Theories

Maslows

need hierarchy

Individuals

satisfy basic needs before

directing behavior toward higher-order
needs

Alderfers

ERG theory

Those

who fail to satisfy growth needs

become frustrated, regress, and refocus
attention on lower-order needs

5-29

Comparison of Content Theories

Herzbergs

two-factor theory

Some

job features and characteristics

result in motivation
Others create a comfortable work
environment, but dont motive
McClellands

learned needs

Needs

are learned from the culture

Training and education can enhance and
influence a persons need strength
5-30

Expectancy Theory
A person

who is faced with

a set of first-level outcomes
will select one based on
The

strength (valence) of the

desire to achieve a secondlevel state
The perception of the
relationship between firstand second-level outcomes

5-31

Expectancy Theory (Varoom)

A process

governing choices among

alternative forms of voluntary activity
Most

behaviors are under a persons

voluntary control and are consequently
motivated

When

faced with a set of first-level

outcomes
Employees

select outcomes based on

how the choice relates to second-level
outcomes
5-32

Expectancy Theory Terminology

First-

and second-level outcomes

The

result of behaviors
Associated with doing the job itself
First-level outcomes include productivity,
absenteeism, turnover, quality
Second-level
Instrumentality
An

individuals perception that first-level

outcomes are associated with secondlevel outcomes
5-33

Expectancy Theory Terminology

Valence
The

strength of a persons preference for a

particular outcome
Applies to first- and second-level
outcomes
Expectancy
Perceived

likelihood that a particular act

will be followed by a particular outcome
Subjective probability
5-34

Principles of Expectancy Theory

V1

= S(V2 x I)

Valence

associated with first-level outcomes is

the sum of the multiplication of the valences (V2)
attached to all second-level outcomes with their
respective instrumentalities (I)

= f(V1 x E)

Motivation

is a multiplicative function of the

valence for each first-level outcome (V1) and the
perceived expectancy (E) that a given behavior
will be followed by a particular first-level outcome

= f(M x A)

Performance

is considered a multiplicative
function of motivation (f) and ability
5-35

Expectancy Theory Example

Expectancy
(probability of
performance given
effort)

Performance
outcome
(valences x
instrumentalities)

Instrumentalities (how
much performance
outcome & second-level
outcome are associated

1.0

Day off (6)

Recognition/compliment
from boss (3)

0.3

Mention of performance
in personnel record (1)

0.2

Day off (6)

0.7

Recognition/compliment
from boss (3)

-0.1

Mention of performance
in personnel record (1)

0.0

Day off (6)

0.2

Recognition/compliment
from boss (3)

-0.4

Mention of performance
in personnel record (1)

0.6
Finishing budget
on time (6.9)
2.76

Motivation

2.24

.20

0.4
0.7

Finishing budget
on required day
but after deadline
(3.2)

1.0
Finishing budget
on day after
deadline (.20)

Valences of secondlevel outcomes

(in parentheses)

5-36

Expectancy Theory
Managers

should

Focus

on employee expectations for

success
Actively determine which second-level
outcomes are important to employees
Link desired second-level outcomes to
the organizations performance goals

5-37

Equity Theory

Employees

compare their efforts and

rewards with those of others in similar
works situations
5-38

Equity Theory
Important

terms

Person:

the individual for whom equity

or inequity is perceived

Comparison

other: any individual(s) or

group used as a referent regarding the
ratio of inputs and outcomes

Inputs:

the individual characteristics

brought by Person to the job

Outcomes:

what Person received from

the job
5-39

Equity Theory

A person (P)
with certain
inputs (I) and
receiving
certain
outcomes (O)

Compares
his/her input/
outcome ratio to
reference
persons (RP)
inputs (I) and
outcomes (O)

IP: Inputs of the person

OP: Outcomes of the person
IRP: Inputs of reference person
ORP: Outcomes of reference person

and
perceives

OP = ORP
IP
(equity)
IRP or
(inequity)

<

OP
ORP
IP or IRP

OP
IP

>

ORP
IRP

(inequity)

5-40

Restoring Equity

Change

the inputs or outcomes of the

reference person
Change your inputs or outcomes
Change the reference person
Change the situation
5-41