1

3. MEASUREMENT METHODS. 3.1. Deflection, difference, and null methods

3. MEASUREMENT METHODS
3.1. Deflection, difference, and null methods
With the deflection method, the result of the measurement is
entirely determined by the readout of the measurement device.

10

The linearity of the entire scale is important.

Reference: [1]

3. MEASUREMENT METHODS. 3.1. Deflection, difference, and null methods

The difference method indicates only the difference between the

unknown quantity and the known, reference quantity. Here, the
result of the measurement is partially determined by the readout
of the measurement device and partially by the reference
quantity.

10

10

Reference

The linearity of a part of the scale is important.

Reference: [1]

3. MEASUREMENT METHODS. 3.1. Deflection, difference, and null methods

With the null method, the result is entirely determined by a

known reference quantity. The readout of the measurement
instrument is used only to adjust the reference quantity to
exactly the same value as the known quantity. The indication is
then zero and the instrument is used as a null detector.

10

10

Reference

The linearity of the scale is not important.

Reference: [1]

3. MEASUREMENT METHODS. 3.1. Deflection, difference, and null methods

Example A: )a( deflection, )b( difference, and )c( null measurements

mm 103 100

mm 100

(a)

:Inaccuracy:
Inaccuracy

100 m

3. MEASUREMENT METHODS. 3.1. Deflection, difference, and null methods

Example A: )a( deflection, )b( difference, and )c( null measurements

mm 103 1
0

mm 103 100

mm 100

(a)

(b)
Reference
mm 105 99

:Inaccuracy:
Inaccuracy

100 m

m 1 1

3. MEASUREMENT METHODS. 3.1. Deflection, difference, and null methods

Example A: )a( deflection, )b( difference, and )c( null measurements

mm 103 1
0

mm 103 100

mm 103 0

mm 100

(a)

:Inaccuracy:
Inaccuracy

100 m

(b)

1 1 m

(c)
Reference

Reference

mm 105 99

mm 105 100

m 1 0

Null method: linearity is not important;

sensitivity and zero drift are important.

3. MEASUREMENT METHODS. 3.1. Deflection, difference, and null methods

Example B: Null measurements, C=0, P0=FA

Pressure, P0

F = mg

Oil
Membrane

C1

C2

Null method: linearity is not important;

sensitivity and zero drift are important.

3. MEASUREMENT METHODS. 3.1. Deflection, difference, and null methods

Example C: Difference measurements, P = P0 P, P C

F = mg

Pressure, P0 + P

Oil
Membrane

C1

C2

3. MEASUREMENT METHODS. 3.1. Deflection, difference, and null methods

Example C: Difference measurements, P = P0 P, P C

Pressure, P0

F = mg

Oil
Membrane

C1

C2

10

3. MEASUREMENT METHODS. 3.1. Deflection, difference, and null methods

Example C: Difference measurements, P = P0 P, P C

Pressure, P0 P

F = mg

Oil
Membrane

C1

C2

.Difference method: linearity is important

11

3. MEASUREMENT METHODS. 3.3. Compensation method and bridge method

Bridge method )Christie, 1833, Wheatstone, 1843(

Null detector
R (1)
Vref
VxVref

Vref

Rx

Vref

Originally was called the bridge

It can be shown that the null condition does not depend on the
power delivered by the power supply, the circuits internal
impedance, or the internal impedance of the null detector.
Note that the bridge method requires a single power source.
Reference: [1]

12

3. MEASUREMENT METHODS. 3.1. Deflection, difference, and null methods

Example D: Null measurements

Let us first define some new terms that describe the interface of
a measurement system:
transducer is any device that converts a physical signal
of one type into a physical signal of another type,
measurement transducer is the transducer that does not
destroy the information to be measured,
input transducer or sensor is the transducer that
converts non-electrical signals into electrical signals,
output transducer or actuator is the transducer that
converts electrical signals into non-electrical signals.

Reference: [1]

13

3. MEASUREMENT METHODS. 3.1. Deflection, difference, and null methods

Example D: Null measurements

Input transducer )sensor(
Non-electrical signal

Sensor
Sensor

Electrical signal

ES

N-ES

14

3. MEASUREMENT METHODS. 3.1. Deflection, difference, and null methods

Example D: Null measurements

Output transducer )actuator(
Electrical signal

Actuator
Actuator

Non-electrical signal

N-ES

ES

15

3. MEASUREMENT METHODS. 3.1. Deflection, difference, and null methods

Example D: Null measurements

Sensor
Sensor

Actuator
Actuator
Measurement
Measurement System
System

Sensor
Sensor

Actuator
Actuator

Non-electrical signals

Non-electrical signals

Measurement system interface

16

3. MEASUREMENT METHODS. 3.1. Deflection, difference, and null methods

Example D: Null measurements

Our aim in this example is to eliminate temperature drift in the
sensitivity of a dc magnetic field sensor with the help of a linear
temperature-insensitive reciprocal actuator.
Ha

Sensor
Sensor

VS

Vo

VS

Actuator
Actuator

Hact
T1

Hact

T1
T2

T2
Ha

Vo

17

3. MEASUREMENT METHODS. 3.1. Deflection, difference, and null methods

Example D: Null measurements

Any ideas?

Reference (Helmholtz coils)

Io
Hact

Null detector

Io

Sensor
Sensor

VS
VS0 A

Vo

Ha

The sensor temperature-drift

errors and nonlinearity are
not important

HactHa

Vs
T1
T2
HHaHact
H1H2 0

Hact 1Hact 2

T1
T2

Vo 1Vo 2

Vo

18

3. MEASUREMENT METHODS. 3.1. Deflection, difference, and null methods

Example E: Difference measurements

Reference (Helmholtz coils)

Io
Hact

G AOL

HactHaA
OL +1

Io

Sensor
Sensor

VS
VS 0

Vo

Ha

The sensor temperature-drift

errors and nonlinearity are
important

Hact

VS
T1

VS
VS

T2
HHaHact
H1H2

T1
T2

Hact
Hact
Vo 2 Vo 1

Vo

19

3. MEASUREMENT METHODS. 3.2. Interchange method and substitution method

3.2. Interchange method and substitution method

According to the interchange method, two almost equal
quantities are exchanged in the second measurement.
This method can determine both the magnitude of the
difference between the two quantities and and the magnitude of
possible asymmetry in the measuring system.

3-

m1

2- 1- 0 1 2

m2

Reference: [1]

20

3. MEASUREMENT METHODS. 3.2. Interchange method and substitution method

3.2. Interchange method and substitution method

According to the interchange method, two almost equal
quantities are exchanged in the second measurement.
This method can determine both the magnitude of the
difference between the two quantities and and the magnitude of
possible asymmetry in the measuring system.

3-

m2

2- 1- 0 1 2

m1

Reference: [1]

21

3. MEASUREMENT METHODS. 3.2. Interchange method and substitution method

3.2. Interchange method and substitution method

According to the interchange method, two almost equal
quantities are exchanged in the second measurement.
This method can determine both the magnitude of the
difference between the two quantities and and the magnitude of
possible asymmetry in the measuring system.

3-

2- 1- 0 1 2

Offset =[1 )2(]/2

3

m =[1)2(]/2
m1

m2

Reference: [1]

22

3. MEASUREMENT METHODS. 3.2. Interchange method and substitution method

According to the substitution method, the unknown quantity is

measured first, and the measurement system reading is
remembered. Then, the unknown quantity is replaced with a
known and adjustable quantity, which is adjusted to obtain the
remembered reading.
The characteristics of the measurement system should
therefore not influence the measurement. Only the time stability
and the resolution of the system are important.

m
2

0.5

0.2

Reference: [1]

23

3. MEASUREMENT METHODS. 3.2. Interchange method and substitution method

According to the substitution method, the unknown quantity is

measured first, and the measurement system reading is
remembered. Then, the unknown quantity is replaced with a
known and adjustable quantity, which is adjusted to obtain the
remembered reading.
The characteristics of the measurement system should
therefore not influence the measurement. Only the time stability
and the resolution of the system are important.

0.5

0.2

Reference: [1]

24

3. MEASUREMENT METHODS. 3.2. Interchange method and substitution method

According to the substitution method, the unknown quantity is

measured first, and the measurement system reading is
remembered. Then, the unknown quantity is replaced with a
known and adjustable quantity, which is adjusted to obtain the
remembered reading.
The characteristics of the measurement system should
therefore not influence the measurement. Only the time stability
and the resolution of the system are important.

2
m

0.5

0.2

Reference: [1]

25

3. MEASUREMENT METHODS. 3.2. Interchange method and substitution method

According to the substitution method, the unknown quantity is

measured first, and the measurement system reading is
remembered. Then, the unknown quantity is replaced with a
known and adjustable quantity, which is adjusted to obtain the
remembered reading.
The characteristics of the measurement system should
therefore not influence the measurement. Only the time stability
and the resolution of the system are important.
Calibration
3.5

m=3.5
2
2
m

0.5
0.5

1
1
1

0.5

0.2

Reference: [1]

26

3. MEASUREMENT METHODS. 3.2. Interchange method and substitution method

Calibration of a measurement system is, in fact, an application

of the substitution method. First the system is calibrated with a
know quantity. An unknown quantity can then be measured
accurately if its magnitude coincides with the calibrating points.

Calibration
3.5

m=3.5
2
2
m

0.5
0.5

1
1
1

0.5

0.2

Reference: [1]

27

3. MEASUREMENT METHODS. 3.2. Interchange method and substitution method

Example A: Interchange method.

Vo

(Vo AVoff AVaVb

Voff

(Vo' AVoff AVaVb

A
Vo

AVoff
VaVb

Va

Vb

(Vo' AVoff AVaVb

? = Voff
? = VaVb

28

3. MEASUREMENT METHODS. 3.2. Interchange method and substitution method

Example A: Interchange method.

Vo

(Vo AVoff AVaVb

Voff

(Vo' AVoff AVaVb

A
Vo

Va

Vb

AVoff
(Vo"AVoff AVaVb

VaVb

(Vo' AVoff AVaVb

(Vo"AV
? =offVAV
aVb
off
"Vo'?V
?==VoV
off b
aV

2 AV off
? = VaVb
"Vo' Vo

2 A)VaVb(

3. MEASUREMENT METHODS. 3.2. Interchange method and substitution method

Example: Amplifiers with the controllable polarity of the gain.

10k 1%
10k 1%
Voff
vin

5k
5k

10k 1%
10k 1%
Voff
vin

5k

29

3. MEASUREMENT METHODS. 3.2. Interchange method and substitution method

Example: Amplifiers with the controllable polarity of the gain.

10k 1%
10k 1%
Voff
vin

5k ?
5k?

10k 1%
10k 1%
Voff
vin

5k ?

30

31

3. MEASUREMENT METHODS. 3.2. Interchange method and substitution method

Example B: Interchange method.

msr
2

= ?
=?Offset
1

true

32

3. MEASUREMENT METHODS. 3.2. Interchange method and substitution method

Example B: Interchange method.

msr
Offset = )21= 0.5

= )21 = 1.5

true

3. MEASUREMENT METHODS. 3.2. Interchange method and substitution method

Example B: Interchange method.

Offset = 0.5
1

= 1.5

33

3. MEASUREMENT METHODS. 3.2. Interchange method and substitution method

36

Examples: Substitution method.

Two next measurement methods, compensation and bridge

methods, are, in fact, applications of the substitution method.

37

3. MEASUREMENT METHODS. 3.3. Compensation method and bridge method

3.3. Compensation method and bridge method

Compensation method removes the effect of unknown quantity
on the measurement system by compensating it with the effect
of known quantity. The degree of compensation can be
determined with a null indicator.
If the unknown effect is compensated completely, no power is
supplied or withdrawn from the unknown quantity.
The compensation method requires an auxiliary power source
that can supply precisely the same power that otherwise would
have been withdrawn from the measured quantity.

Reference: [1]

38

3. MEASUREMENT METHODS. 3.3. Compensation method and bridge method

Example: Measurement of voltage with compensation method.

Null detector
R (1)
Vx

VxVref

Vref

Reference: [1]

39

3. MEASUREMENT METHODS. 3.3. Compensation method and bridge method

NB: Note that the difference method and the null method make
use of the compensation method. In the difference method,
the compensation is only partial, whereas in the null method
it is complete.

Reference

No compensation Partial compensation Complete compensation

Reference: [1]

40

3. MEASUREMENT METHODS. 3.3. Compensation method and bridge method

Bridge method )Christie, 1833, Wheatstone, 1843(

Null detector
R (1)
Vref
VxVref

Vref

Rx

Vref

Originally was called the bridge

It can be shown that the null condition does not depend on the
power delivered by the power supply, the circuits internal
impedance, or the internal impedance of the null detector.
Note that the bridge method requires a single power source.
Reference: [1]

3. MEASUREMENT METHODS. 3.4. Analogy method

3.4. Analogy method

Analogy method makes use of a model of the object from which
we wish to obtain measurement information.
The following models can be used.
Mathematical models )simulations(.
Linear scale models )e.g., acoustics of large halls, etc.(.
Non-linear scale models )e.g., wind tunnel models, etc.(.
Analogy method also widely uses the analogy existing between
different physical phenomena, for example, equivalent
mechanical models are used to model electrical resonant
circuits, equivalent electrical models are used to model quartz
resonators, equivalent magnetic circuits are used to model
magnetic systems, etc.

41

42

3. MEASUREMENT METHODS. 3.5. Repetition method

3.5. Repetition method

Wit this method several measurements of the same unknown
quantity are conducted each according to a different procedure
to prevent the possibility of making the same )systematic(
errors, specific to a certain type of measurements. Different
)correctly applied( methods of measurements will provide
similar results, but the measurement errors in the results will be
independent of each other. This will yield an indication of the
reliability of measurements.
6
7
8
9

6
7
8
9

6
7
8
9

6 7 8 9 10 9 8 7 6

6 7 8 9 10 9 8 7 6

6 7 8 9 10 9 8 7 6

9
8
7
6

9
8
7
6

9
8
7
6

Unreliable

Reliable

Valid
Reference: [1]

43

Next lecture

Next lecture: