1.

0 INTRODUCTION TO SEMICONDUCTORS
1.1 Characteristics and
electrical properties of
semiconductors.
1.1.1 Semiconductor
and include silicon
and germanium.
1.1.2 Characteristics
of N-type and P-type
semiconductors.
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1.2 Characteristics of P-N junction and its

reaction towards voltage biasing.
1.2.1

Formation of a junction
a. Free electrons mobility
b. Formation of depletion
region and its properties.
c. Existence of threshold
voltage and its values
for
silicon and
germanium.
1.2.2 Forward biased voltage and
reverse biased voltage supplied
across P-N junction.
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1.2.3 Effects when a P-N junction is

supplied with forward biased voltage
and reverse biased voltage on the
following items :
a. Area of depletion region.
b. Junction resistance
c. Current flow (including leakage
current)
1.2.4

Breakdown when P-N junction is

reverse biased.

INTRODUCTION OF ATOMIC STRUCTURE

Atomic structure is the smallest element in a
material.
Atomic structure model was introduced by
Niels Bohr in 1913.
Atom consists of a nucleus at the center which
is surrounded by electrons. The nucleus
contains proton (positive charge) and neutron
(neutral).

 The maximum orbit in an atom is 7 layers.

The orbits known as K, L, M, N, O, P and Q layer.

 Maximum number of electrons in each orbit

determine by formula:
n is the number of
2
2xn
layer
Maximum number of electrons in each layer :
Laye
r

No. of
layer

Calculati
on

Maximum
Electron

2 x 12

2 x 22

2 x 32

18

2 x 42

32

2 x 52

50

2x 62

72

2 x 72

98

 The number of layers are depend on the number

of electrons in an atom.
The outer layer of an atom named valence layer.
The electron in valence layer called electron
valence
(it is current carrier).
Valence electron

Valence layer

Figure 3 : Valence layer and Electron

valence position
maximum
electrons in valence layer

The
is 8
electrons.
The number of electron in valence layer
determine the electrical characteristics of the
materials (conductor, semiconductor or insulator).

ELECTRON VALENS, TYPES OF MATERIAL &

CHARACTERISTICS.
Numbe
Types of
Characteristic
r of
Valenc
eElectr
on

Material

1 to 3

Conductor

Can conduct an electrical current.

Low resistant that ease the current flow.
The atom always release its valence electrons.
So, the electrons are free to move from one
atom to another.
Example : Gold, copper.

5 to 8

Insulator

Cannot conduct an electrical current.

High resistant.
The atom always receive valence electrons
from another atom to fill its valence layer. So,
its become stable and capable to avoid any
electrical activities.
Example : Rubber.

Semiconduct
or

Its electrical conductivity is between

conductor and insulator.

Example 1 :
An Aluminium has 13 electrons.
i). Determine the number of electrons in each layer.
ii). Sketch its atomic structure.
iii). State the material type.
Solution :
i). Number of electrons in each layer :
ii).
Atomic Structure :
K layer (1) : 2 x 12 = 2 electrons
L layer (2) : 2 x 22 = 8 electrons
M layer (3) : 13-2-8 = 3 electrons
iii). Material Type :
Conductor (3 electron valens)

Example 2 :
Germanium has 32 electrons.
i). Determine the number of electrons in each layer.
ii). Sketch its atomic structure.
iii). State the material type.

Solution :
i). Number of electrons in each layer :
ii). Atomic
Structure :
K Layer (1) : 2 x 12 = 2 electrons
L Layer (2) : 2 x 22 = 8 electrons
M Layer (3) : 2 x 32 = 18 electrons
N Layer (4) : 32-2-8-18 = 4 electrons
iii). Material Type :
Semiconductor (4 electron valens)

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1.1.1

Semiconductor

Semiconductor is a material that has electrical

conductivity between conductor and insulator.
Always use in electronic components
manufacturing (example: diode, transistor and
integrated circuit).
It has 4 valence electrons in its valence layer.
Valence electrons are current carrier.
An atom that has 4 valence electrons is unstable.
It has to complete its valence electrons from 4 to
8 by sharing electrons with another atom. The
electron sharing is called
Covalent Bonds.
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 Silicon and Germanium are a sample of

semiconductor because it has 4 valence electrons in
its valence layer.

Valence layer has

4 valence electrons

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Covalent Bonds
Definition : Covalent Bond is when an atom
sharing valence electrons with their neighboring
atom. So that it looks like having 8 valence
electrons.
It makes the atom becomes stable and has strong
bonding.
By this state, the atoms act as an insulator at
the room temperature.

Figure 6 : Covalent Bonds

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 Electron and hole are created when the stability

of the covalent bond is disturbed by several
factors such as increase of temperature, voltage
potential or doping process.
Electron has a negative charge. So, free electrons
are called Negative current carrier.
Hole has a positive charge. So, holes are called as
Positive current carrier.

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 There are several factors that effected the stability

of an atom such as increase in temperature,
potential difference and doping process.
i.

Increase in temperature
. In low temperature, covalent bonding is
stable.
. When temperature is increasing, the atom
become unstable.
. Electrons free from their bonding, moving from
one orbit to another orbit randomly.

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ii.

Potential difference
When a high voltage supplied to a
semiconductor materials, electrons will move
to the positive potential.
In that time, it will act as a conductor.
The electron movements are as figure below :

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Figure 7 : Effect of potential difference to a semiconductor.

iii. Doping Process

Process of adding impurity atoms into intrinsic
semiconductor to increase the number of any
current carrier (either free electron or hole) of
the semiconductor.
Two elements used for doping are Trivalent
and Pentavalent.
If semiconductor is doped with Trivalent
material (3 valence electrons), it will produce
P-type semiconductor.
If semiconductor is doped with Pentavalent
material (5 electron valence), it will produce Ntype semiconductor.
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Types Of Semiconductors
i. Intrinsic semiconductor
Instrinsic semiconductor is a pure
semiconductor that has no foreign substance.
Example : Germanium and Silicon.
ii. Extrinsic semiconductor
Not pure, mixed with foreign substances.
The mixing process known as doping process.
Produce N-type or P-type semiconductor.
Foreign subtances known as Trivalens (has 3
valence electrons) or Pentavalens (has 5
valence electrons).
Example foreign substance of Trivalens :
Aluminium, Boron, Galium and Indium .
Example foreign substance of Pentavalens : 18

1.1.2 Characteristic of N-type and P-type

semiconductors.
i. N-type semiconductors.
It happens when pure semiconductors (eg
Silicone) is
doping with Pentavalent
impurities (5 valence electrons) (refer figure
8) :

Contributes free electron

Figure 8 : N-Type Semiconductor

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 4 of 5 valence electrons from the foreign

substance atom will form Covalent bonds with
Silicon atoms, but there will be one more electron
that has no pair.
The electron will free from its orbit and become
free electron (negative current carrier).
The material is called as N-type material.
Its majority current carriers are free
electrons.
Its minority current carriers are holes.

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ii.

P-type semiconductors
. It happens when the intrinsic semiconductor is
doping with Trivalens impurities (3 valence
electrons).

Producing Hole

Figure 9 : P-Type Semiconductor.

. Example (Refer to Figure 9) : Silicon (Si) is an
intrinsic semiconductor, while Indium (In) is the
impurities.

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 Silicon allowed its 3 valence electrons to form

covalent bond with 3 Indiums (In) valence
electrons.
But, one more valence electron of the silicon is
not forming a covalent bond because lack of
Indium valence electron. This empty space
formed a hole, which is a positive current charge.
The material is called as P-type material.
Its majority of current carriers are holes .
Its minority of current carriers are electrons.

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1.2

P-N Junction
A P-N junction is formed at the boundary
between a
P-Type and N-Type
semiconductor.
P-N junction is feature which enables diode,
transistor and the other devices work.
1.2.1 Formation of a junction
Figure below shows the combination of
N-type andP-NP-type
materials which form
JUNCTION
a P-N junction.

N-type

P-type

Figure 10 : P-N junction

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 After joining P-type and N-type semiconductors,

electrons on the N-type region tend to diffuse into
the P region.
As the electrons diffuse, they leave positively
charged ions in the N region. This creates a layer
of positive charges near the junction.
Likewise, holes on the P-type region begin to
diffuse into the N-type region, leaving negative
charge.
When a free electron meets a free hole, it makes
the electron hole neutral pair. This means the
hole and electrons cancel each other and vanish.
Thus, at the boundary, there is an area that does
not have any mobile charge carrier. This is call
Depletion Region.
This neutral area provides the barrier for the
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 The minimum forward voltage applied to

overcome the potential barrier is called
threshold voltage.
The threshold voltage is the minimum forward
voltage value across the semiconductor at which
the semiconductor start to conduct current.
The threshold voltage is approximately 0.3V for
germaniumDepletion
and 0.7V
Regionfor silicon.

N-type

P-type
Barrier Potential

Figure 11: Formation Of Depletion Region and Barrier Potential.

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1.2.2

Voltage Biases

Definition : Voltage bias is voltage that supplied

across P-N junction.
1.2.3 Types of voltage bias :
i) Forward Bias
ii) Reverse Bias

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i).

Forward Bias
Definition : P-type semiconductor
material is connected to the positive
terminal and the N-type semiconductor
material is connected to the negative
terminal of a battery (Figure 12)

Figure 12 : Forward Bias

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 Circuit Operation :
- Electron in N material will be push towards
the combination area cause depletion
region become thin (small).
Depletion Region

P-type

N-type

Figure 13 : Depletion Region In Forward Bias

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- The resistance of the P-N junction will

decrease.
- When the forward bias voltage increase until
over the knee voltage (0.3V for Germanium
and 0.7V for Silicon), the electron will be able
to cross the combination region and also
towards the positive supply.
- So, the current can flow.
- The current is known as Forward Current.
- The P-N junction resistance is known as
forward resistance.

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ii).

Reverse Bias

Definition : N-type semiconductor material

is connected
to the positive terminal of a battery and the
P-type
semiconductor material is connected to the
negative
terminal (Figure 14).

Figure 14 : Reverse Bias

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 Circuit Operation :
- Electron from N-Type will be pushed to the
positive supply. The depletion region will be
larger.
Depletion Region

Figure 15 : Depletion Region Of Reverse Bias

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- The resistance will increase. We call it as

Reverse Resistance.
- So the current cannot flow through the
combination region.
- Leakage current / Reverse current is a
minority current in the device.
- Electrons from the P type will pushed by the
voltage bias towards the combination region
and then crossing the region. So, it will
produce a small current flow.
- Its value is depends on the temperature. If
the temperature is low, the currents value will
be low too.
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1.2.4 Breakdown when P-N junction is

reverse biased.
- If the P-N junction is supplied with
extremely high -reverse bias, it will distract
the covalent bond.
- Electron will be pushed to positive
terminal and will free as current carrier. The
free electron will hit others bond.
- The reverse current will flow and the
value is suddenly increase. This level is
called as Breakdown Voltage. This will
cause the PN junction to burn.
- To avoid this problem, the maximum

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