Physical Properties Affecting the Fluids' Flow

The major factors affecting the flow of fluids

through pipes are:

1) The velocity of the fluid: is defined as the
fluid speed in the direction of flow. Fluid velocity
depends on the head pressure that is forcing the
fluid through the pipe. Greater the head
pressures, faster the fluid flow rate.
2) Pipe size: The larger the pipe, the greater the
potential flow rate
3) Pipe Friction: reduces the flow rate through
the pipe. Flow rate of the fluid is slower near walls
of the pipe than at the centre.
4) Fluid viscosity: its physical resistance to flow.
Higher the viscosity the fluid, the slower fluid flow.

 5) The specific gravity of the fluid: At any given operating

condition, higher the fluid's specific gravity, lower the
fluid's flow rate.
6) Fluid Condition: The condition of the fluid (clean or
dirty) also limitations in flow measurement, some
measuring devices become blocked/plugged or eroded if
dirty fluids are used.
7) Velocity Profiles: Velocity profiles have major effect on
the accuracy and performance of most flow meters.
The shape of the velocity profile inside a pipe depends on
the momentum or internal forces of the fluid, that moves
the fluid through the pipe, the viscous forces of the fluid
that tend to slow the fluid as passes near the pipe walls.

 Laminar or Streamlined: is
described as liquid flowing through
a pipeline, divisible into layers
moving parallel to each other.
Turbulent flow: is the most
common type of flow pattern
found in pipes. Turbulent flow is
the flow pattern which has a
transverse velocity (swirls, eddy
current).
Transitional flow: which is
between the laminar and turbulent
flow profiles. Its behaviour is
difficult to predict and it may
oscillate between the laminar and
turbulent flow profiles.

1. DIFFERENTIAL PRESSURE
FLOWMETERS
Differential pressure type flow meters
provide the best results where the flow
conditions are turbulent. Some of the
most common types of differential
pressure flow meters are:
ORIFICE METERS.
VENTURI METERS
NOZZLE METERS
PITOT TUBES
The working principle for DP flowmeters
is that something makes the velocity of
the fluid change and this produces a
change in the pressure so that a
difference P is created.
It can be shown for all these meters
that the volumetric flowrate Q is related
to p by the following basic formula.
Q = K (p)0.5
K is the meter constant

ORIFICE FLOWMETERS
The components of a typical
orifice flowmeter installation are:
Orifice plate and holder
Orifice taps
Differential pressure transmitter
ORIFICE PLATES
o Are metal plates have an equal
outer diameter of the pipeline.
These plates have an opening
orifice bore smaller than the
pipe inner diameter.
o The typical orifice plate has a
concentric, sharp edged opening.
Because of the smaller area the
fluid velocity increases, causing a
corresponding decrease in
pressure.

 The concentric orifice plate has a sharp (square- edged) concentric bore that
provides an almost pure line contact between the plate and the fluid. The beta
(or diameter) ratios of concentric orifice plates range from 0.25 to 0.75. The
maximum velocity and minimum static pressure occurs at some 0.35 to 0.85
pipe diameters downstream from the orifice plate.
Eccentric orifice plates are typically used for dirty liquids/ gases. Liquids
containing vapour (bore above pipeline flow axis). Vapours containing liquid (bore
below pipeline flow axis).
Segmental orifice plates are used for heavy fluids, in preference to eccentric
bore plates, because it allows more drainage around the circumference of the
pipe.
Orifice Holders The orifice is inserted into the pipeline between the two
flanges of an orifice union. This method of installation is cost-effective, but it calls
for a process shutdown whenever the plate is removed for maintenance or
inspection.

Orifice taps
There are 4 common arrangements of pressure
taps:
1.Flange taps are located 1 inch from the orifice
plate's surfaces. They are not recommended for
use on pipelines under 2 inches in diameter.
2. Vena contracta taps are located one pipe
diameter upstream from the plate, and
downstream at the point of vena contracta. This
location varies from 0.35D to 0.8D. The vena
contracta taps provide the maximum pressure
differential, but also the most noise. Normally are
used only in pipe sizes exceeding 6 inches.
3. Corner taps are predominant for pipes
under 2 inches.
4. Pipe taps are located 2.5 pipe diameters
upstream and 8 diameters downstream from the
orifice. They detect the smallest pressure
difference. With pipe taps measurement errors are
the greatest.

DP Flow Measurement
When a DP cell is used to transmit a flow measurement the output of the
transmitter is not linear. To solve this problem some form of signal conditioning
is needed to condition the signal for use with a linear scaled indicator.
Relationship between Differential pressure and flow
When the differential pressure is obtained experimentally and plotted against
flow, the resulting graph is a square function.
If the square root of differential pressure is plotted against flow, a straight
line is obtained showing that the rate of flow is in direct proportion to the
square root of differential pressure.
Therefore, in many flow measurement installations a Square Root Extractor is
fitted to the output of a differential pressure transmitter. In Smart transmitters
it is inbuilt with microprocessor programming. Or it is done in the PLC or DCS
programs

DP Flowmeter Installations

Advantages and Disadvantages of Orifice flowmeters

Advantages
They are easy to install.
One differential pressure transmitter applies for any pipe size.
Many DP sensing materials are available to meet process
requirements.
Orifice plates have no moving parts and have been researched
extensively; therefore, application data well documented (compared
to other primary differential pressure elements).
DisadvantagesDisadvantages
The process fluid is in the impulse lines to the differential
transmitter may freeze or block.
Their accuracy is affected by changes in density, viscosity, and
temperature.
They require frequent calibration

 VENTURI TUBES
o Venturi tube consists of a section of pipe with a conical entrance, a short straight throat, and a conical
outlet. The velocity increases and the pressure drops at the throat. The differential pressure is measured
between the inlet (upstream of the conical entrance) and the throat.
o Venturi tubes are available in sizes up to 72", and can pass 25 to 50% more flow than an orifice with the
same pressure drop. Furthermore, the total unrecovered head loss rarely exceeds 10% of measured d/p.
Advantages and Disadvantages of VENTURI TUBES
Advantage
It can handle low-pressure applications
It can measure 25 to 50% more flow than a comparable orifice
It is less susceptible to wear and corrosion compared to orifice plates
It is suitable for measurement in very large water pipes and very large air/Gas ducts.
Provides better performance than the orifice plate when there are solids in Suspension.
Disadvantage
It is the most expensive among the differential pressure meters
It is big and heavy for large sizes
Its has considerable length

 2) VARIABLE AREA FLOWMETERS

Variable area flow meters are simple and
versatile devices that operate at a relatively
constant pressure drop and measure the flow
of liquids, gases, and steam.
There are two main types of this meter
1.Float type (Rotameter)
2. Tapered plug type.
Float Type (Rotameter)
The float is inside a tapered tube. The fluid
flows through the annular gap around the edge
of the float. The restriction causes a pressure
drop over the float and the pressure forces the
float upwards.
Because the tube is tapered, the restriction is
decreased as the float moves up. Eventually a
level is reached where the restriction is just
right to produce a pressure force that
counteracts the weight of the float.
The level of the float indicates the flow rate.
If the flow changes the float moves up or
down to find a new balance position.

 Tapered Plug Type

In this meter a tapered plug is aligned inside a hole or
orifice. A spring holds it in place. The flow is restricted
as it passes through the gap and a force is produced
which moves the plug. Because it is tapered the
restriction changes and the plug takes up a position
where the pressure force just balances the spring force.
The movement of the plug is transmitted with a
magnet to an indicator on the outside.

 3) MECHANICAL FLOWMETERS
Mechanical flow meters that measure
flow using an arrangement of moving
parts, either by passing isolated known
volumes of a fluid through a series of
gears or chambers (positive
displacement meters)
OR by means of a spinning turbine or
rotor (Turbine Flowmeters)

 3.2) TURBINE FLOWMETERS

The turbine flowmeter is an accurate and reliable flowmeter for
both liquids flowmeter. It consists of a multi-bladed rotor
mounted at right angles to the flow and suspended in the fluid
stream on a free-running bearing. The rotor speed of rotation is
proportional to the volumetric flow rate. Turbine rotation can
be detected by solid state devices (inductance pick-ups).

Volumetric Flow Rate Equation

The outputs of reluctance and inductive pick-up coils are continuous sine waves with the
pulse train's frequency proportional to the flow rate.

In an electronic turbine flowmeter, volumetric flow is directly proportional to pickup coil

output frequency. We may express this relationship in the form of an equation: f = kQ

Where,f = Frequency of rate output signal (Hz, equivalent to pulses per second)

Q = Volumetric flow rate (e.g. gallons per second)

k = Turbine meter factor (e.g. pulses per gallon)

k Factor

A turbine flowmeters K factor is determined by the manufacturer by displacing a known

volume of fluid through the meter and summing the number of pulses generated by the
meter.
Advantages and Disadvantages of the turbine meters
Advantages

The turbine meter is easy to install and maintain.

Are bi directional

Have fast response

Disadvantages

They are sensitive to dirt and cannot be used for highly viscous fluids.

Flashing or slugs of vapour or gas in the liquid produce blade wear and excessive
bearing friction that can result in poor performance and possible turbine damage.

They are sensitive to the velocity profile to the presence of swirls at the inlet; they require
a uniform velocity profile (i.e. pipe straightness may have to be used ).

Strainers may be required upstream to minimise particle contamination of the bearings.

o The transmission cable must be well protected to avoid the effect of electrical noise.

 4) ELECTRONIC FLOWMETERS
Electronic flowmeters represent a logical
grouping of flow measurement technologies.
All have no moving parts, are relatively nonintrusive, and aremade possible by today's
sophisticated electronics technology. 3 types
of flowmeters:
1. Magnetic flowmeters,
2 Vortex flowmeters,
3. Ultrasonic flowmeters

 MAGNETIC FLOWMETERS
Base principle of magnetic flowmeter
The magnetic flow meter design is based on Faradays law of magnetic induction which states that: The
voltage induced across a conductor as it moves at right angles through a magnetic field
proportional to the velocity of that conductor.
That is, if a conductor is moving perpendicular to its length through a magnetic field, it will generate an
electrical potential between its two ends
E = B x L x v Where:
B = the strength of the magnetic field (induction)
L = the length of the conductor (distance of electrodes)
v = velocity of the conductor (average flow velocity)
Magmeter Flow Equation
If a conductive fluid flows through a pipe of diameter (D) through a magnetic field density (B) generated
by the coils, the amount of voltage (E) developed across the electrodes will be proportional to the
velocity (V) of the liquid. Because the magnetic field density and the pipe diameter are fixed values,
they can be combined into a calibration factor (K) and the equation reduces to: E=KV
Manufacturers determine each magmeter's K factor by water calibration of each flowtube. The K value
thus obtained is valid for any other conductive liquid and is linear over the entire flow meter range.

Advantages and Disadvantages of Magmeter

Advantages
Are bi-directional
Have no flow obstruction
Are easy to re-span
It can measure pulsating and corrosive flow.
It can install vertically or horizontally (the line must be full, however)
and can be used with fluids with conductivity greater than 200 umhos/cm.
Changes inconductivity value donot,affect the instrument performance.
Disadvantages
It's above average cost
It's large size
Its need for a minimum electrical conductivity of 5 to 20 mhos / cm
Electrical coating may cause calibration shifts
The line must be full and have no air bubbles (air and gas bubbles
entrained in the liquid will be metered as liquid, causing a measurement
error).
In some applications, appropriate mechanical protection for the
electrodes must be provided.

 4.3) ULTRASONIC FLOWMETERS

Base Principle:
The speed at which sound propagates in a
fluid is dependent on the fluid's density. If the
density is constant, however, one can use the
time of ultrasonic passage (or reflection) to
determine the velocity of a flowing fluid.
There are 2 types of ultrasonic flowmeters:
1. Doppler shift, and
2 Transit time

The Doppler Shift

o Doppler-effect flow meters use a transmitter that projects
a continuous ultrasonic beam at about 0.640 MHz through
the pipe wall into the flowing stream. Particles in the stream
reflect the ultrasonic radiation, which is detected by the
receiver.
o The frequency reaching the receiver is shifted in proportion
to the stream velocity.
o The frequency difference is a measure of the flow rate.
o Thus, flow velocity V (ft/sec) is directly proportionalto the
change in frequency. The flow (Q in gpm) in a pipe having a
certain inside diameter (ID in inches) can be obtained by:

 Advantages and Disadvantages of Doppler

Meter
Advantage
The common clamps-on versions are easily
installed without process shutdown.
It can be installed bi-directional
Flow measurement is not affected due to change in
the viscosity of the process.
The meter produces no flow obstruction
Its cost is independent of line size.
Disadvantage
The sensor may detect some sound energy
travelling in the causing interference reading errors.
The instrument requires periodic re calibration

Transit Time Measurement

o In this design, the time of flight of the ultrasonic signal is measured between
two transducers; one upstream and one downstream. The difference in elapsed
time going with or against the flow determines the fluid velocity.
o When the flow is zero, the time for the signal to get toT2 is the same as that
required to get from T2 to T1. When there is flow, the effect is to boost the
speed of the signal in the downstream direction, while decreasing it in the
upstream direction. The flowing velocity (Vf) can be determined by the
following equation:
o where K is a calibration factor for the volume and time units used, dt is the
time differential between upstream and downstream transit times, and TL is
the zero-flow transit time
o The speed of sound in the fluid is a function of both density and temperature.
Therefore, both have to be compensated for.

Advantages and Disadvantages of Transit Meter

AdvantagesAdvantages
It does not cause any flow obstruction
It can be installed bi-directionall
It is unaffected by changes in the process temperature
It is suitable to handle corrosive fluids and pulsating flows.
It can be installed by clamping on the pipe and is generally suited for
measurements in very large water pipes.
DisadvantagesDisadvantages
This type of meters are highly dependent on the Reynolds number (the
velocity profile)
It requires nonporous pipe material (cast iron, cement and fibre glass should
\
be avoided)
It requires periodic re calibration
.

 5) MASS FLOWMETERS
Traditionally fluid flow measurement has been made in terms of
the volume of the moving fluid even though the meter user may
be more interested in the weight (mass) of the fluid. Volumetric
flow meters also are subject to ambient and process changes,
such as density, which changes with temperature and pressure.
There are three ways to determine mass flow:
1. The application of microprocessor technology to conventional
volumetric meters.
2. Use of Coriolis flow meters, which measure mass flow directly.
3. The use of thermal mass flow meters that infer mass flow by
way of measuring heat dissipation between two points in the
pipeline.

 MICROPROCESSOR-BASED VOLUMETRIC FLOW METERS

with microprocessors it is relatively simple to compensate a
volumetric flow meter for temperature and pressure.
With reliable composition (density) information, this factor also can
be entered into a microprocessor to obtain mass flow readout.
However, when density changes may occur with some frequency
and changes may occur with some frequency, and particularly where
the flowing fluid is of high monetary value (for example, in custody
transfer),precise density compensation (to achieve mass) canbe
expensive.

 o For the precise measurement of gas flow (steam) at varying pressures and
temperatures, it is necessary to determine the pressures and temperatures, it
is necessary to determine the
density, which is pressure and temperature dependent, and from this value
to calculate the actual flow. The use of a computer is essential to measure
flow with changing pressure or temperature.
o This unit will automatically correct for variations in pressure, temperature,
specific gravity, and super-compressibility. The pressure differential (h)
developed by the flow element is measured, and the mass flow (W) can all be
calculated using the following generalized formulas:t he following generalized
formulas:
Where:
k is the discharge coefficient of the element (which also reflects the units of
measurement),
A is the cross-sectional area of the pipe's opening, and
D is the density of the flowing fluid.

 5.3) THERMAL MASS FLOWMETERS

o The power supply directs heat to the midpoint of a sensor tube that carries a constant percentage of the flow.
On the same tube at equidistant two temperature elements (RTD) are installed at upstream and downstream of
the heat input.
o With no flow, the heat reaching each temperature element (RTD) is equal.
o With increasing flow the flow stream carries heat away from the upstream element T1 and an increasing
amount toward the downstream element T2. An increasing temperature difference develops between the two
elements.
o This temperature difference detected by the temperature elements is proportional to the amount of gas
flowing, or the mass flow rate.
o The pipe wall temperature is highest near the heater (detected as Tw), while, some distance away, there is no
difference as between wall and fluid temperature.
o Therefore the temperature of the unheated fluid (Tf) can be detected by measuring the wall temperature at
this location further away from the heater. This heat transfer process is non linear, and the corresponding
equation differs from the one above as follows:

 o In the direct-heat version, a fixed amount of heat (q) is

added by an electric heater. As the process fluid flows
through the pipe, resistance temperature detectors (RTDs)
measure the temperature rise while the amount of electric
heat introduced is held constant.
O The mass flow (m) is calculated on the basis of the
measured temperature difference (T2 - T1), the meter
coefficient (K), the electric heat rate (q), and the specific
heat of the fluid (Cp), as follows: