Chapter 15

Limestone
Environment

Chapter 15: Limestone Environment

Limestone landscape
A limestone region characterised by sinkholes and
caves is known as karst
It is formed by the chemical weathering (carbonation
and solution) of limestone rocks

Formation of karst
When rainwater reacts with carbon dioxide in the air or
in the soil, it forms carbonic acid
The acid changes the calcium carbonate in limestone to
calcium bicarbonate which dissolves in water
This process results in the formation of karst features
on the surface and beneath it

Chapter 15: Limestone Environment

Importance of understanding karst systems

Karst landscapes make up about 10% of the Earths
surface
They are most abundant in tropical humid regions but
also occur in temperate, tropical, alpine and polar
environments
A quarter of the worlds population depend on water
supplied from karst areas
However, karst systems are vulnerable to groundwater
pollution due to the relatively rapid water flow and the
lack of a natural filtration system
Local drinking water supplies risk being contaminated
as a result

Chapter 15: Limestone Environment

Limestone pavements
Flat areas of exposed limestone
Resemble artificial pavements
Comprise large rectangular blocks called clints
separated by long grooves known as grikes
A result of chemical weathering along the joints and
cracks in the limestone rocks
The grikes will deepen
and widen over time

A limestone pavement in Malham Cove,

England

Chapter 15: Limestone Environment

Sinkholes
Depressions in the land surface
Caused by the dissolving of underlying limestone and
the collapse of surface material
A river that flows over a limestone area may disappear
down a sinkhole
Chemical weathering coupled with erosion by the river
may enlarge the grikes on the surface until they become
holes, causing the river to disappear into underground
caverns and channels
The part of the original channel downstream where the
river formerly flowed is called a dry valley
The river returns to the surface at the resurgence point

Chapter 15: Limestone Environment

Sinkholes

Chapter 15: Limestone Environment

Dry valleys
Steep-sided valleys that no longer have water flowing
over the surface
During the last ice age, limestone was frozen to great
depths
As the climate warmed, melting ice formed rivers that
carved out valleys over the still-frozen rocks
When the rocks thawed, the water infiltrated down
through the rocks and the valleys were left with no
surface water, resulting in dry valleys
Underground caves may form below dry valleys
The caves may collapse to form a gorge

Chapter 15: Limestone Environment

A small depression
formed when one cave
collapses is called a
doline
When several dolines
coalesce, they form a
polje or uvala

Sinkhole Plain, a limestone

environment near Mammoth
Cave, USA

Water
table

Chapter 15: Limestone Environment

Stalactites and stalagmites

Water that drips from the roof of a cave contains
calcium carbonate
When the water drops fall, they leave behind some
calcium carbonate
The water drops also deposit calcium carbonate on the
floor of the cave
These deposits accumulate to form stalactites (hanging
from the roof) and stalagmites (on the ground)
When water flows down the walls and over the floor of
the cave, flowstone or rimstone deposits are formed
When water drips over the edges of ledges, thin sheets
of deposits called draperies are formed

Chapter 15: Limestone Environment

Stalactite

Stalagmite

Underground
pool

Stalactites and stalagmites in a cave

Chapter 15: Limestone Environment

Protecting karst resources in the Caribbean

The Caribbean has one of the worlds premier karst
landscapes (which make up more than half of the total
land area of the region)
About 90% of the karst is in the Greater Antilles
Other significant areas are in the Bahamas, Anguilla,
Antigua, the Cayman Islands, the Virgin Islands,
Guadeloupe, Barbados, Trinidad and Tobago, and the
Netherlands Antilles
Most countries have adopted conservative strategies in
the establishment of parks, reserves and sanctuaries
encompassing karst landscapes
Regionally, there are 121 protected karst areas,
covering 14.3% of the total karst

Chapter 15: Limestone Environment

Economic value of karst

1. Agriculture

Some karst regions have rich and highly productive soils

The caves may be used for specialised agricultural activities
such as fish breeding, mushroom growing and cheese
production
In Southeast Asia, limestone caves are an important source
of birds nest

2. Industry

Limestone is an important raw material for steel-making and

cement
It is also used to reduce some forms of industrial pollution,
e.g. by removing sulphur dioxide from gases

Chapter 15: Limestone Environment

3. Tourism

Annually, about 20
million people
worldwide visit
limestone caves
The Green Grotto
Caves in Jamaica,
Harrisons Cave in
Barbados and
Gasparee Caves in
Trinidad are tourist
attractions
Tourism is an
important source
of income for the
residents in karst
areas

Harrison's Cave

Gasparee Caves

Chapter 15: Limestone Environment

Scientific value of karst

Karsts are a key source of information on landform evolution and

climate change
The caves contain important archaeological and palaeontological
material
Karsts host various endangered plant and animal species, both
underground and on the surface

Recreational value of karst

Karsts offer opportunities for caving, which has become a popular

recreational activity
This contributes to tourism

Chapter 15: Limestone Environment

Threats to karst systems

Drawing of water within karst areas disturbs the
hydrological system
The water level and the water quality are threatened
Moisture within the cave microclimate is affected
The plant and animal species in the caves are
subsequently affected
Quarrying for precious minerals such as bauxite
destroys the caves
Dumping of sewage and domestic and industrial waste
can lead to groundwater pollution as there is little
natural filtration in karst regions

Chapter 15: Limestone Environment

Case study: The Jamaican karst landscape

Cockpit Country
Mostly located in Trelawny, but spreads through the
neighbouring parishes of St Elizabeth and St James
Characterised by a regular series of round-topped
conical hills and pits

The landscape of Cockpit

Country

Chapter 15: Limestone Environment

Formation
Cockpit Country is a massive limestone plateau with an
elevation of about 600m above sea level
According to one theory, its characteristic topography is
the result of heavy tropical rain washing through the
fissured plateau over millions of years
The water dissolved and eroded the fissures and
washed the debris through the sinkholes into the sea
Another theory postulates that water moves slowly at the
top of the hills with little erosion
As the water flowed downhill, it picked up momentum
and gathered debris, resulting in a more pronounced
scouring action

Chapter 15: Limestone Environment

Features of a karst landscape

Chapter 15: Limestone Environment

Identifying karst features on a topographical map

Undulating landscape as indicated by the irregular
contour pattern
Dry valleys
Depressions as indicated by
short hash marks inside circles
Disappearing streams
Springs at the foot of steep
escarpments and place names
that begin with spring such as
Springvale.
Deep gorges
Features and symbols that represent quarries and
cement-making, since limestone is an important
ingredient for cement production
Little or no surface drainage