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CHAPTER 4

METAL FATIGUE

INTRODUCTION
It has long been known that a component subjected to
fluctuating stresses may fail at stress levels much lower than its
monotonic fracture strength, due to a process called Fatigue.
A form of failure that occur in structure subjected to dynamic and
cyclic stresses.
Possible failure at a stress level lower than the tensile or yield
strength for a static load and after a lengthy period of repeated
stress or strain cycling.
It is believed that more than 95 % of all mechanical failures can
be attributed to fatigue.
Many engineering materials such as those used in cars, planes,
turbine engines, machinery, shoes, etc are subjected constantly
to repetitive stresses in the form of tension, compression,
bending, vibration, thermal expansion and contraction or other
stresses.

TYPES OF FATIGUE LOADING


Three types of stress cycle are :
1.Completely reversed cycle of stress
2. repeated stress cycles
3. irregular or random stress cycle

Reversed stress
cycle

Illustrates the type of fatigue loading where a member is


subjected to opposite loads alternately with a means of
zero.

For example bending of steel wire continuously in either


direction leads to alternate tensile and compressive
stresses on its surface layers and failure fatigue.

If the applied load changes from any magnitude in one


direction to the same magnitude in the opposite
direction, the loading is termed completely reversed,

Repeated stress
cycle

Type of fatigue loading where a member is subjected to


only tension but to various degrees.

A spring subjected to repeated tension as in a toy would


lead to fatigue failure.

Random stress
cycle

This type of fatigue loading where a member could


be subjected to irregular loads just as in the case of
an aircraft wing subjected to wind loads

MECHANISM OF FATIGUE
FAILURE
Consider a ductile material which is subjected to
simple alternating tensile and compressive stresses
There are typically three stages to fatigue failure

First, a small crack is initiated or nucleates at the surface


and can include scratches, pits, sharp corners due to poor
design or manufacture, inclusions, grain boundaries or
dislocation concentrations.

Second, the crack gradually propagates as the load


continues to cycle.

Third, a sudden fracture of the material occurs when the


remaining cross-section of the material is too small to
support the applied load.

The Process of
Fatigue
The Materials Science Perspective:
Cyclic slip,
Fatigue crack initiation,
Stage I fatigue crack growth,
Stage II fatigue crack growth,

Brittle fracture or ductile rupture

Crack nucleation:
During the first few cycles

of loading, localized
changes take place in the structure at various places
within the material.
These
changes
lead
to
the
formation
of
submicroscopic cracks.
Low Cycle Fatigue
Based on the LCF local strain philosophy, fatigue
cracks initiate as a result of repeated plastic strain
cycling at the locations of maximum strain
concentration.

Crack growth:
The submicroscopic cracks formed grow as the cycles
of loading continue and become microscopic cracks.

Crack propagation:
If a crack exits in the component before it goes unto
service for example due to weld fabrication or from
some other cause, the 'initiation stage is by-passed
and the fatigue failure process is taken up entirely
with incremental growth and final fracture.

Mechanisms of fatigue failure

Some of the theories which explain the


mechanism of crank nucleation leading
to fatigue fracture are mentioned
below,
Woods theory
Orowans theory
Cottrell and Hull theory

Fatigue failures are often easy to identify.


The fracture surface near the origin is usually smooth.
The surface becomes rougher as the crack increases in
size.
Microscopic and macroscopic examination reveal a
beach mark pattern and striations.
Beach mark patterns indicate that the load is changed
during service or the load is intermittent. Macroscopic
dimension may be observed with an unaided eye.
Striations are on a much finer scale and show the
position of the crack tip after each cycle. Microscopic
and subject to observation with SEM/TEM

Fracture Surface in a Fatigue


failure:

Macroscopic Examination

Microscopic Examination

start

End
progres
s

SEM image

SEM image @ high


magnification

Finer markingsStriations

Intrusions
Clamshell/beach
and
Extrusions
markings motion leads to PERSISTENT SLIP BANDS (PSBs)
Dislocation

These SLIP BANDS involve INTRUSIONS and EXTRUSIONS (slip on


different set of planes depending on loading cycle) Tiny Steps
Stress Raisers Microcrack Initiation (along planes of high shear
stress )
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CRACK
CRACK Propagation
Propagation
Mechanism
Mechanism !!
Cyclic Load
Crack Initiation
(microcrack)

Crack Propagation Stage I

Crack Propagation Stage II

Fracture

We will study Crack propagation Stages again once we get familiarize with
the loading cycles
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Appearance of Failure Surfaces


Caused by Various Modes of Loading
(SAE Handbook)

16

Constant and Variable Amplitude Stress


Histories;
Definition of a Stress Cycle & Stress Reversal
Constant amplitude stress history

Stress

a)

max

One
cycle

min

In the case of the peak stress history


the important parameters are:

Range
stress
peak :

peak
min
;

Stress
amplitude:
peak:

Time
b)

peak
max

peak
a

peak
max
mipeak
n

Mean stress :

Variable amplitude stress history

peak
m

peak
peak
max
min

;
2

Stress

Stress ratio :
One
reversal

Time

mipeak
R penak
max

0
18

The most important fatigue data for


engineering designs are the S-N curves,
which is the Stress-Number of Cycles
curves.
In a fatigue test, a specimen is subjected
to a cyclic stress of a certain form and
amplitude and the number of cycles to
failure is determined.
The number of cycles, N, to failure is a
function of the stress amplitude, S.
A plot of S versus N is called the S-N
curve.

WOHLER or S-N
DIAGRAM,

S-N curve for a material


that display a fatigue limit.
S-N curve for a material
that does not display a
fatigue limit.

Figure 1
The S-N curves for a tool steel and an aluminum alloy showing
the number of cycles to failure

Endurance Limit
For some materials such as BCC steels and Ti alloys,
the S-N curves become horizontal when the stress
amplitude is decreased to a certain level.
This stress level is called the Fatigue Limit, or
Endurance Limit, which is typically ~35-60% of the
tensile strength for steels.
In some materials, including steels, the endurance
limit is approximately half (50%) the tensile strength
given by:

endurance limit
Endurance ratio
0.5
tensile strength

Fatigue life
Tells us how long a component survives at particular stress.
For example if the tool steel (Figure 1) is cyclically subjected to an
applied stress at 90,000 psi the fatigue life will be 100,000 cycles.

Fatigue Strength:
For materials, which do not show a fatigue limit, i.e., the S-N curves do
not become horizontal such as Al, Cu, and Mg (non-ferrous alloys), and
some steels with a FCC structure,
fatigue strength is specified as the stress level at which failure will
occur for a specified number of cycles, where 107 cycles is often used.
Fatigue strength is necessary for designing with aluminum and
polymers which have no endurance limit.

Fatigue Life
Crack Growth Rate
To estimate whether a crack will grow, the stress
intensity factor (K), which characterizes the crack
geometry and the stress amplitude can be used.
Below a threshold K a crack doesnt grow.
For somewhat higher stress intensities, the cracks grow
slowly.
For still higher stress-intensities a crack grows at a rate
given by:
da

dN

C K

Where C and n are empirical constants that depend on the


material.
When K is high, the cracks grow in a rapid and unstable
manner until fracture occurs.

Fracture Mechanics for


Fatigue

Stress Intensity
Factor
K
In Cyclic
Loading,
we define , K;

K = Kmax Kmin
= Y (Smax Smin)

risErdogan Equation:

Fatigue Life

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Fatigue testing

Cantilever loading

Four Point Bending


Set up
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Factors affecting fatigue


1. Residual stress
The mean stress level leads to a decrease in fatigue life
2. Surface finish
Most cracks leading to fatigue originate at surface position, specially at stress
amplification sites.
3. Environment/ corrosion
If a corrosive environment is present during the cyclic stress of a metal, the chemical
attack greatly accelerates the rate at crack fatigue propagates. The combination of
corrosive attack and cyclic stresses on a metal is known as corrosive fatigue.
4. Design
Any notch or geometrical discontinuity can act as a stress raiser and fatigue crack
initiaon site,
5. Temperature

Stress-Corrosion Failure
Stress corrosion happens when a material
reacts with corrosive chemicals in its
environment.
Two good examples,
salt on the roads reacting with the steel in
cars causing reduced lifetime of the cars
components such as its frame and
suspension system.
salt in the ocean reacting with boats and
their moorings where the corrosion reduces
the life of the engine, which is cooled by the
salt water, and the structural integrity of the
boat is jeopardized if salt water sits in the

Stress-Corrosion Failure
Stress-corrosion will cause failure of materials
below their yield strength because the corrosion will
cause cracks to form, usually along grain
boundaries.
Usually if there is a corrosion product on the
surface where a crack is inside the material.
The surface flaws themselves can be nucleation
sites for crack growth.
Usually materials are coated to reduce or prevent
corrosion. The automotive industry has shown
excellent results by applying metal coatings (Sn)
and polymer coatings on the sheet steel used on
the body of cars.

Intergranular cracks near


a stress-corrosion fracture
in a metal.
Note the many branches
where the corrosion has
eaten into the grain
boundaries of the metal.
If you are offered
materials to be used for
structural purposes that
have etch pits on the
surface at a reduced price,
think again, as the pits are
surface cracks that could
extend far into the
material.
As a professional

Fatigue control
1. Consider actual stresses, including stress concentrations, rather
than to nominal average stresses.
2. Visualize load transfer from one part or section to another and the
distortions that occur during loading to locate points of high stress
3. Avoid adding secondary brackets, fittings, handles, steps, bosses,
grooves, and openings at locations of high stress
4. Use gradual changes in section and symmetry of design to reduce
secondary flexure
5. Consider location and types of joints (frequent cause of fatigue
problems)
6. Use double shear joints when possible
7. Do not use rivets for carrying repeated tensile loads (bolts superior)
8. Avoid open and loosely filled holes

9. Consider fabrication methods, specify strict requirements when


needed
10. Choose proper surface finishes, but not overly severe (rivet holes,
welds, openings etc. may be larger drivers)
11. Provide suitable protection against corrosion
12. Avoid metallic plating with widely different properties than
underlying material
13. Consider prestressing when feasible, to include shot peening and
cold working
14. Consider maintenance, to include inspections, and protection against
corrosion, wear, abuse, overheating, and repeated overloading
15. Avoid use of structures at critical or fundamental frequency of
individual parts or of the structure as a whole (induces many cycles of
relatively high stress)
16. Consider temperature effects.

Goodman and Soderberg


Diagram
Goodman Diagram

If the point representing the stress amplitude and mean stress for
any given set of condition lies within the area bounded by the axes
and the Goodman line the shaded area, then according to the
Goodman relationship the material should not be fail by fatigue.

Fatigue Failure, when there is no


Complete Stress Reversal

Goodman and Soderberg


Diagram
Soderberg Diagram

Again the point representing the stress amplitude and mean


stress for the material must lie within the shaded area bounded by
the axes and the Soderberg line if failure by fatigue is to be
avoided.

Surface treatment
Surface polishing
Polish the surface to remove stress amplification sites
Shot peening
Imposing residual compressive stress within a thin outer
surface layer
Case hardening
By a carburizing or nitriding process whereby a
component is exposed to a carbonaceous or nitrogenous
atmosphere at an elevated temperature

ANY QUESTION????????

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