The atoms

held together
by sharing
electrons are
joined by a
Covalent
Bond.

2. Covalent bonds-

Two atoms share one or more pairs of outer-shell

electrons.

Oxygen Atom

Oxygen Atom

Oxygen Molecule (O2)

Molecules and Molecular

Compounds
Molecule is a neutral
group of atoms joined
together by covalent
bonds.
Diatomic molecule is a
molecule consisting of
two atoms.
A compound composed
of molecules is called a
molecular compound.

Properties
Molecular compounds tend to have
relatively lower melting and boiling points
than ionic compounds.
Many are gases or liquids at room
temperature.
Most are formed from atoms of two or more
nonmetals.

Molecular Formulas
A molecular formula is the chemical
formula of a molecular compound.
It shows how many atoms of each element
a molecule contains.
CO2
Carbon Dioxide
1 Carbon Atom
2 Oxygen Atoms

 Ionic Vs. Covalent Bond

Chapter 2 Chemical Principles

Bonding

Covalent bonding

So
what
are
covalent
bonds?

In covalent bonding,
atoms still want to achieve
a noble gas configuration
(the octet rule).

In covalent bonding,
atoms still want to achieve
a noble gas configuration
(the octet rule).

But rather than losing or gaining

electrons,
atoms now share an electron pair.

In covalent bonding,
atoms still want to achieve
a noble gas configuration
(the octet rule).
But rather than losing or gaining
electrons,
atoms now share an electron pair.

The shared electron pair

is called a bonding pair

Chlorine
forms
a
covalent
bond
with
itself

Cl2

Cl

Cl

How
will
two
chlorine
atoms
react?

Cl

Cl

Each chlorine atom wants to

gain one electron to achieve an octet

Cl

Cl

Neither atom will give up an electron

chlorine is highly electronegative.

Whats the solution what can they

do to achieve an octet?

Cl

Cl

Neither atom will give up an electron

chlorine is highly electronegative.

Whats the solution what can they

do to achieve an octet?

Cl Cl
octet

Cl Cl
octet

circle the electrons for

each atom that completes
their octets

Cl Cl
The octet is achieved by
each atom sharing the
electron pair in the middle

circle the electrons for

each atom that completes
their octets

Cl Cl
The octet is achieved by
each atom sharing the
electron pair in the middle

circle the electrons for

each atom that completes
their octets

Cl Cl
This is the bonding pair

circle the electrons for

each atom that completes
their octets

Cl Cl
It is a single bonding pair

circle the electrons for

each atom that completes
their octets

Cl Cl
It is called a SINGLE BOND

circle the electrons for

each atom that completes
their octets

Cl Cl
Single bonds are abbreviated
with a dash

circle the electrons for

each atom that completes
their octets

Cl Cl
This is the chlorine molecule,

Cl2

circle the electrons for

each atom that completes
their octets

O2
Oxygen is also one of the diatomic molecules

How will two oxygen atoms bond?

Each atom has two unpaired electrons

Oxygen atoms are highly electronegative.

So both atoms want to gain two electrons.

O O
Both electron pairs are shared.

O O
6 valence electrons
plus 2 shared electrons
= full octet

O O
6 valence electrons
plus 2 shared electrons
= full octet

O O
two bonding pairs,
making a double bond

O O O =O
For convenience, the double bond
can be shown as two dashes.

O =O
This is the oxygen molecule,

O2

this
is so
cool!
!

Multiple Covalent bonds

Need to share
Another pair of
electrons

Only 7 electrons does

Not meet Octet Rule!

Sharing One Pair of electrons

One Covalent Bond

O O
Sharing Two Pairs of electrons
Two Covalent Bonds
A Double Bond

O O
A Double Bond can be
represented by a double line

Nitrogen

Multiple Covalent bonds

N N
Sharing Three Pairs of electrons
Three Covalent Bonds
A Triple Bond

N N
A Triple Bond can be
represented by a Triple line

Coordinate Covalent Bond

both electrons contributed by one atom of
pair
NH3 + H+ -----> NH4+
H2O + H+ -----> H3O+

Coordinate Covalent Bond

ammonium ion

Drawing Lewis Dot Structures

1. Predict the location of the atoms
a. Hydrogen is a terminal atom
b. The central atom has the smallest electronegativity.

2. Count the valence electrons.

3. Draw a single covalent bond between the
central atom and the surrounding atoms.
4. Subtract the number of electrons in the single
covalent bonds from the total number of
electrons in 2.
5. Use the remaining electrons to complete the
octets of each atom.
6. If the central atom does not have a complete
octet then try double or triple bonds.

Drawing Lewis Dot Structures

Draw Lewis Dot Structures for:
PH3
H2S
HCl
CCl4
SiH4
CH2Cl2

Bond Dissociation Energies

The energy required to
break the bond between two
covalently bonded atoms.

Relate the strength of covalent

bonds to bond length
The more bonds located between 2
atoms, the shorter the bonds are
The shorter a bond is, the stronger it is
H H single bond, not too strong
O=O double bonds, stronger
NN triple bonds, strongest

Endothermic/Exothermic
In chemical reactions, bonds are broken,
then new bonds are formed
Endothermic
More energy is required to break the old
bonds than is released by the formation of
new bonds
Energy is taken in (colder)

Exothermic
More energy is released when forming new
bonds than is used to break the old bonds
Energy is given off (hotter)

Exceptions to Octet Rule

NO2 nitrogen dioxide

resonance

Exceptions to Octet Rule

PF5
expanded octet

Exceptions to Octet Rule

SF6
Expanded octet

INTRODUCTION
A) Lewis structures do not indicate the three
dimensional shape of a molecule. They do not
show the arrangement space of the atoms,
what we call the molecular geometry or
molecular structure.
B) Molecules have definite shapes and the
shape of a molecule controls some of its
chemical and physical properties.

II. Valence Shell Electron Pair Repulsion

Theory - VSEPR - predicts the shapes of a
number of molecules and polyatomic ions.
A) Assumptions of VSEPR Theory
1) Electron pairs in the valence shell of an
atom tend to orient themselves so that the
total energy is minimized. This means that:
the electrons will approach the nucleus as
close as possible yet take positions as far away
from each other as possible to minimize
_______________ .

2) Because lone pairs of electrons are spread

out more broadly than bond pairs, repulsions
are greatest between two lone pairs,
intermediate between a lone pair and a bond
pair, and weakest between two bonding pairs
of electrons.
3) Repulsive forces decrease rapidly with
increasing interpair angle - greatest at 90 o,
much weaker at 120o, and very weak at 180o.
B) What are the ideal arrangements of
electron pairs to minimize repulsions?

Bond Formation
A bond can result from an overlap of
atomic orbitals on neighboring atoms.

Cl

H Cl

Overlap of H (1s) and Cl (2p)

Note that each atom has a single,

unpaired electron.

Double and
even triple
bonds are
commonly
observed for C,
N, P, O, and S

C2F4

O
O

H2CO

SO3

C
C

O
O

Some Common
Geometries
Linear

Trigonal Planar

Tetrahedr
al

Structure Determination by
VSEPR
Water, H2O

H O H

2 bond
pairs
2 lone
pairs

The
The molecular
molecular
geometry
geometry is
is
BENT
BENT..

The
The electron
electron pair
pair
geometry
geometry is
is
TETRAHEDRAL
TETRAHEDRAL

Structure Determination by
VSEPR

Ammonia, NH3
The electron pair geometry is tetrahedral.
N
H

lonepairofelectrons
intetrahedralposition
H

The MOLECULAR GEOMETRY the

positions of the atoms is TRIGONAL
PYRAMID.

Bond Polarity
HCl is POLAR because it has a
positive end and a negative
end. (difference in
electronegativity)

H Cl

Cl has a greater share

in bonding electrons
than does H.

Cl has slight negative charge (- ) and H

has slight positive charge (+ )

Bond Polarity
This is why oil and water will not mix!
Oil is nonpolar, and water is polar.
The two will repel each other, and so
you can not dissolve one in the other

Bond Polarity
Like Dissolves Like

Polar dissolves
Polar
Nonpolar
dissolves
Nonpolar

Electronegativity
Difference
If the difference in electronegativities is
between:
1.7 to 4.0: Ionic
0.3 to 1.7: Polar Covalent
0.0 to 0.3: Non-Polar Covalent
Example: NaCl
Na = 0.8, Cl = 3.0
Difference is 2.2, so
this is an ionic bond!

Diatomic Elements
These elements do not exist as a single atom;
they always appear as pairs
When atoms turn into ions, this NO LONGER
HAPPENS!

Hydrogen
Nitrogen
Oxygen
Fluorine
Chlorine
Bromine
Iodine

Remember:
BrINClHOF

Polar Covalent Bonds: Unevenly

matched, but willing to share.

Van der Waals Forces

Small, weak interactions between molecules

Van der Waals Forces

Intermolecular: between molecules (not a bond)
Intramolecular: bonds within molecules (stronger)

3 Types of Van der Waals Forces

1) dipole-dipole
2) dipole-induced dipole
3) dispersion

Dipole-Dipole
Two polar molecules align so that + and - are
matched (electrostatic attraction)
Ex: ethane (C2H6) vs. fluromethane (CH3F)
Occurs when polar molecules are attracted to one
another.
The slightly region of a polar molecule is weakly
attracted to the slightly positive region of another
polar molecule.
Similar to but much weaker than ionic bonds.

Dispersion Forces
The weakest of all molecular interactions,
are caused by the motion of electrons.
Dispersion is the ONLY intermolecular attraction
that occurs between non-polar molecules

Review
Dipole
between two polar molecules
Dispersionbetween two non-polar molecules

Hydrogen Bonding
STRONGEST Intermolecular Force!!
A special type of dipole-dipole attraction
Bonds form due to the polarity of water.

Ice

Liquid

Hydrogen Bonding cont

Hydrogen bonds keep water in the liquid
phase over a wider range of temperatures
than is found for any other molecule of its
size

How many drops can you get on

a penny?
Water?

http://www.msnucleus.org/membership/html/k-6/wc/water/1/images/penny.jpg

Why is there a difference???

Water has strong Hydrogen Bonds and
TTE has weaker intermolecular forces

How is surface tension affected

by soap?
Breaks the surface tension!

http://www.chemistryland.com/CHM107/Water/SoapDisruptsWater.jpg

http://www.chemistry.nus.edu.sg/2500/micelle.jpg

Intermolecular Attractions and

Molecular Properties
The physical properties of a compound depend
on the type of bonding it displays-in particular,
on whether it is ionic or covalent.
Network Solids are solids in which all of the
atoms are covalently bonded together.
Melting a network solid would require breaking
covalent bonds throughout the solid.
Diamond does not melt; rather it vaporizes to a
gas at 3500 degrees Celsius and above.

Review of Chemical Bonds

Most bonds are

somewhere in
between ionic
and covalent.

There are 3 forms of bonding:

_________complete transfer of
1 or more electrons from one atom
to another (one loses, the other
gains) forming oppositely charged
ions that attract one another
_________some valence
electrons shared between atoms
_________ holds atoms of a
metal together

Review of Valence
Electrons

Number of valence electrons of a main

(A) group atom = Group number

Review
Review of
of Valence
Valence Electrons
Electrons
Remember from the electron
chapter that valence electrons are
the electrons in the OUTERMOST
energy level thats why we did
all those electron configurations!
B is 1s2 2s2 2p1; so the outer
energy level is 2, and there are
2+1 = 3 electrons in level 2.
These are the valence electrons!
Br is [Ar] 4s2 3d10 4p5
How many valence electrons are
present?

Bond and Lone Pairs

Valence electrons are distributed
as shared or BOND PAIRS and
unshared or LONE PAIRS.
H

Cl

shared or
bond pair

lone pair (LP)

This is called a LEWIS

structure.