Chapter 2 - Inductors, Capacitors and Alternating Current Circuits

CHAPTER 2.
0
INDUCTORS, CAPACITORS AND AC
CIRCUITS
Jabatan Kejuruteraan Mekanikal

Politeknik Ibrahim Sultan
EXPLAIN THE BASIC PRINCIPLES OF

INDUCTORS
Introduction
i.
ii.
Inductors is a passive element.

The function - to store electrical charge in magnetic
fields.
iii. Used in power supplies, transformers radios, TVs,
radars & electric motors.
iv. Inductors are usually made with coils of wire
sometime called a coil or choke.
v. The wire coils are wound around iron cores, ferrite
cores, or other materials.
vi. Increase the current in the conductor will create a
changing magnetic field to generate a voltage in the
conductor.
vii. Electrical circuits that have properties against
changes in current is called inductance (kearuhan).
viii. Inductance is the ability of an inductor to store

INDUCTORS
Inductor
Inductor Symbols
Ferrite core
Air core
Variable core
Iron core

INDUCTORS
The
Function of Inductors in Electronic
Circuits
To smooth out the ripples in a wave of DC circuits

To improve the characteristics of waves in the
telephone line
To store the electrical energy
To improve the current in circuit

INDUCTORS
The EMF (electromotive force) Induced
from Flux Cutting
a) An inductor is simply a coil of wire. the current, (i)
flowing through the coil produces a magnetic flux,
(N) that is proportional to this flow of electrical
current.
b) When a conductor is moved across a magnetic field so
as to cut through the flux, an electromagnetic force
(e.m.f.) is produced in the conductor.
c) Faradays Law : a voltage is induced in a
conductor when that conductor is moved
d dLi field,
di or when the magnetic
through a Vmagnetic
L
L (t )
dt
dt
dt
field moves
past
the
conductor;
where;
amount of flux in Webers
di
the currents rate of change in amps / sec
dt

INDUCTORS
The EMF (electromotive force) Induced
from Flux Cutting
e) Induced e.m.f. on the conductor could be produced
by two methods ;
i. flux cuts conductor
ii. conductor cuts flux
1)Flux Cuts Conductor

When the magnet is moved
towards the coil, a
Coil (conductor)
deflection is noted on the galvanometer
Magnetic field showing
that a current has been produced in the coil.
Flux cuts conductor
EXPLAIN THE BASIC PRINCIPLES

OF EMF
INDUCTORS
The
(electromotive force) Induced
from Flux Cutting
2)Conductor Cuts Flux
When the conductor is moved through a magnetic an

e.m.f. is induced in the conductor and thus a source of
e.m.f. is created between the ends of the conductor
(the simple concept of AC generator)
Magnetic field
conductor
Conductor cuts flux
EXPLAIN THE BASIC PRINCIPLES

OF Direction
INDUCTORS
The
of EMF Produced
2)Flux Cuts Conductor
The direction of an induced e.m.f. is always such that
it tends to set up a CURRENT OPPOSING the
MOTION OR THE CHANGE OF FLUX responsible for
inducing that e.m.f. (Lenzs Law)
Bar magnet move in and move out from a solenoid

INDUCTORS
Current & Voltage in
an Inductor
The voltage induced in the
inductor depends the
rate of current change.
Lenz's Law stated that:
"the direction of an
induced emf is such that
it will always opposes
the
change
that
is
causing it".

INDUCTORS
Power in an Inductor
The instantaneous power used in forcing the current, (i)
against this self-induced emf, (VL) is given as;
Power in a circuit is given as;
VL ( t )
d dLi
di
L
dt
dt
dt
di
1 di 2
d 1 2
P v i L i L
Li
2 dt
dt 2
dt

INDUCTORS
Energy in an Inductor
When power flows into an inductor, energy is stored in its
magnetic field. When the current flowing through the
inductor is increasing and di/dt becomes greater than
zero, the instantaneous power in the circuit must also be
greater than zero, (P>0) ie, positive which means that
energy is being stored in the inductor.
Where;
W- Energy (joules, J)
L- Inductance (Henry, H)
i- Current (Amperes, A)
W(t )
1 2
Li(t )
2

INDUCTORS
Inductance
This ability of an
inductor to resist
changes in current and
which also relates
current, i with its
magnetic flux linkage,
N as a constant of
proportionality is called
Inductance which is
given the symbol L
with units of Henry (H)
after Joseph Henry.

INDUCTORS
Unit
of Inductance
The unit of inductance is Henry (H)
The symbol : L
1 Henry is the amount by the winding inductance
when its current changes at a rate of 1 ampere
current and induced voltage produced by 1
volt.
1 miliHenry (mH) = 1/1000 atau 10-3 Henry (H)

1 mikroHenry (H) = 1/ 1,000,000 or 10-6 Henry (H)

INDUCTORS
Self-Inducance & Mutual-Inductance
Two type of Inductance ;
i. Self-Inductance (L)
the induction of a voltage in a current-carrying

wire when the current in the wire itself is
changing.
In the case of self-inductance, the magnetic field
created by a changing current (ac) in the circuit
itself induces a voltage in the same circuit.
Therefore, the voltage is self-induced

INDUCTORS
i.
Self-Inductance (L)-Formula
a ) EMF generated caused to change of flux;
d
e1 N
dt
b) EMF generated caused to change of current ;
di
e2 L
dt
c) Faraday ' s Law;
SELFSELFe1 e2
INDUCTANCE
d
di
d dt
INDUCTANCE
N
L
LN
dt
dt
dt di
where; L self induc tan ce( H @ Henry )
N number of turn in circuit
e induced voltage (volts )
d
changes in fluxs
dt
di
time rate of change of current (amp / sec)
dt
d
LN
di

INDUCTORS
i.
Self-Inductance (L)
An approximation of inductance for any coil of wire
can be found with this formula:

INDUCTORS
ii. Mutual-Inductance (M)
The emf is induced into an adjacent coil situated
within the same magnetic field, the emf is said to

be induced magnetically, inductively or by Mutual
induction, symbol ( M ).
Then when two or more coils are magnetically
linked together by a common magnetic flux they
are said to have the property of Mutual
Inductance.
Mutual induction as the current flowing in one coil
induces an emf in an adjacent coil.

INDUCTORS
Mutual Inductance between Coils
Assuming a perfect flux

linkage between the two
coils the mutual
inductance that exists
between them can be
given as.
Where:
o is the permeability of free
space (4..10-7)
r is the relative permeability
of the soft iron core
N is in the number of coil

INDUCTORS
Mutual Induction
Here the current flowing in coil one, L 1 sets up a

magnetic field around itself with some of these
magnetic field lines passing through coil two, L 2
giving us mutual inductance. Coil one has a current
of I1 and N1 turns while, coil two has N2 turns.
Therefore, the mutual inductance, M12 of coil two
that exists with respect to coil one depends on their
position with respect to each other and is given as:

INDUCTORS
Connecting Inductor in Series & Parallel
i. Inductor in Series Circuit
The current, ( I ) that flows through the first inductor,
L1 has no other way to go but pass through the second
inductor and the third and so on. Then, inductors in
series have a Common Current flowing through
them, for example:
IL1 = IL2 = IL3 = IAB ...etc.

Ltotal = L1 + L2 + L3 + ..... + Ln etc.

INDUCTORS
i. Inductor in Series Circuit
Example 1;
Three inductors of 10mH, 40mH and 50mH are
connected together in a series combination with no
mutual inductance between them. Calculate the total
inductance of the series combination.
Example 2;
Calculate the total inductance.

INDUCTORS
Inductors are said to be connected together in
"Parallel"
when both
ii. Inductor
in Parallel
Circuitof their terminals are
respectively connected to each terminal of the
other inductor or inductors. The voltage drop
across all of the inductors in parallel will be the
same. Then, Inductors in Parallel have a
Common Voltage across them and in our
example below the voltage across the inductors
is given as: VL1 = VL2 = VL3 = VAB ...etc
Total
Inductance;

INDUCTORS
Example
ii. Inductor
in1;
Parallel Circuit
Three inductors of 60mH, 120mH and 75mH are
connected together in a parallel. Calculate the
total inductance of the parallel combination.
Example 2;
Find the total inductance
L2=5.6mH and L3=4.7mH.
L1=
6.8mH,

INDUCTORS
ii. Inductor in Parallel Circuit
Example 3;
Find the total inductance between points A and
B.
L1 = 200 mH
L4 = 1 H
L3 = 3 H
L6 = 2 H
L8 = 1 H
L2 = 800 mH
L5 = 0.8 H
L7 = 2 H

INDUCTORS
ii. Inductor in Parallel Circuit
Solution 3;
Total inductance between points A and B, LT:
L78 L7 L8 1 2 3 H
( L6 )( L7 8 ) (2)(3)
L678
1.2 H
L6 L7 8
23
L45678 L4 L5 L678 1 0.8 1.2 3 H
L345678
( L3 )( L4567 8 ) (3)(3)
1.5 H
L3 L4567 8
33
LT L1 L2 L345678 200 10 3 800 10 3 1.5 2.5 H

INDUCTORS
Quiz
Calculate the equivalent inductance of the following
inductive circuit.

INDUCTORS
Answer
Calculate the first inductor branch, L A
Calculate the second inductor branch, LB
Calculate the equivalent circuit inductance, L EQ
Then the equivalent inductance is 15 mH.
EXPLAIN THE BASIC PRINCIPLES OF CAPACITORS

Introduction
a)A capacitors are one of the most useful components in
electronics, and after resistors are the most numerous
components in circuits.
b)Capacitors ability to store electric charge, as an
ELECTROSTATIC FIELD created between two metal "plates".
c)Simple capacitors consist of two plates made of an

electrically conducting material (e.g., a metal) and
separated by a nonconducting material or dielectric
(e.g., glass, paraffin, mica, oil, paper, tantalum, or
air).

Circuit Symbols for a Capacitor
A basic fixed value type of capacitor consists of
two plates made from metallic foil, separated by an
insulator. This may be made from a choice of
different insulating materials, having good
DIELECTRIC properties.

Capacitors Have Many Uses
High Voltage Electrolytic
used in power supplies.
Axial Electrolytic; lower
voltage smaller size for general
purpose where large
capacitance values are needed.
High Voltage disk ceramic;
small size and capacitance
value, excellent tolerance
characteristics.
Metalised Polypropylene;
small size for values up to
around 2F good reliability.
Sub miniature Multi layer
ceramic chip (surface mount)
capacitor. Relatively high
capacitance for size achieved
by multiple layers, effectively

Types of Capacitor
There are many types of capacitor but they can be split into two
groups, polarised and unpolarised.
1.Polarised
capacitors
values, 1F +)
(large 2.Unpolarised capacitors (small

values, up to 1F)
Electrolytic Capacitors
Polystyrene Capacitors
(color code @ no. code)
Variable capacitors
Tantalum Bead Capacitors

Trimmer capacitors

Types of Capacitor

The Function a Capacitor in Electronic Circuit
a) Capacitors store electric charge.
b) Capacitors improve electric current.
c) They are used with resistors in timingcircuits because it
takes time for a capacitor to fill with charge.
d) They are used to smooth varying DC supplies by acting
as a reservoir of charge.
e) They are also used in filter circuits because capacitors
easily pass AC (changing) signals but they block DC
(constant) signals.

Charge & Discharge
How a capacitor gets its charge
a)A capacitor is connected in a DC circuit,
current flow, but only for a short time.
b)When the switch is closed to contact A and
electrons begin to flow from the negative
battery terminal, and appear to be flowing
around the circuit. Of course they can't
because the capacitor has a layer of
insulation between its plates, so electrons
from the negative battery terminal crowd
onto the right hand plate of the capacitor
creating an increasingly strong negative
charge.
c)The very thin insulating (dielectric) layer
between the plates is able to efficiently
transfer this negative charge from the
electrons, and this charge repels the same
number of electrons from the left hand plate

Charge & Discharge
Why the current falls
a)After a short time, a large
number
of
electrons
have
gathered on the right hand plate
of the capacitor, creating a
growing negative charge, making
it
increasingly
difficult
for
electrons
flowing
from
the
negative battery terminal to reach
the capacitor plate because of the
repulsion
from
the
growing
number of negative electrons
gathered there.

Charge & Discharge
Full Charge
a)The repulsion from the electrons
on the capacitor's right hand plate
is approximately equal to the force
from the negative battery terminal
and current ceases.
b)Once the battery and capacitor
voltages are equal we can say that
the capacitor has reached its
maximum charge.
c)If
the
battery
is
now
disconnected by opening the
switch, the capacitor will remain in
a charged state, with a voltage
equal to the battery voltage, and
provided that no current flows, it
should remain charged indefinitely.

Charge & Discharge
Discharging the capacitor
a)Suppose that with the capacitor fully
charged, the switch is now closed in
position B the circuit is complete once
more, but this time consisting of a resistor
and capacitor.
b)Electrons will now flow around the

circuit via the resistor as the charge on
capacitor acts as the source of current
The charge on the capacitor will be
depleted as the current flows. The rate at
which the capacitor voltage reduces
towards zero will depend on the amount
of current flowing, and thus on the value

Capacitance
a)The amount of energy a capacitor can store depends on the
value or CAPACITANCE of the capacitor.
b)Symbol C
c)Unit farads (symbol F)
d)1 Farad is the amount of capacitance that can store 1 Coulomb
(6.24 x 1018 electrons) when it is charged to a voltage of 1 volt.
e)The Farad is much too large a unit for use in electronics however,
so we more often find the following sub-units of capacitance more
useful.

Factors Affecting Capacitance
Three basic factors of capacitor construction determining the
amount of capacitance created. These factors all dictate
capacitance by affecting how much electric field flux (relative
difference of electrons between plates) will develop for a given
1)
PLATE
AREA:field
Allforce
other
amount
of electric
(voltage between the two plates) :
factors being equal, greater
plate area gives greater
capacitance; less plate area
gives less capacitance.
2) PLATE SPACING: All other
factors being equal, further
plate spacing gives less
capacitance; closer plate
spacing
gives
greater
capacitance.
3) PERMITTIVITY
(DIELECTRIC MATERIAL) :
All other factors being

Factors Affecting Capacitance
C A
1) PLATE AREA:
C
2) PLATE SPACING:
1
d
C
3) PERMITTIVITY (DIELECTRIC MATERIAL)
:
"Relative" permittivity (ketelapan) means the permittivity of a
material, relative to that of a pure vacuum.
An approximation of capacitance for any pair of

separated conductors can be found with this
formula:
permittivity of free space
0
8.85 10
12
F/m
permittivity relative
r

r

Charge on a Capacitor (Capacitance)
a)The charge (Q) on a capacitor depends on a combination
of the above factors, which can be given together as the
Capacitance (C) and the voltage applied (V).
b)For a component of a given capacitance, the relationship
between voltage and charge is constant.
c)Increasing the applied voltage results in a proportionally
increased charge. This relationship can be expressed in the
formula;
Q = CV
or
C = Q/V
or
V = Q/C
Where
V is the voltage applied, in Volts.
C is the capacitance in Farads.
Q is the quantity of charge in Coulombs.

Example ;
1)A capacitor having a capacitance of 80 F is connected
across a 500V d.c. supply. Calculate the charge.
Q CV 80 10 6
500
0.04 C 40 mC
2)A capacitor is made with metal plates and separated by

sheets of mica having a thickness of 0.3 mm and relative
permittivity of 6. The area of one side of each plate is 500
cm square.
the capacitance in microfarads.
GivenCalculate
;
2
A 0.05 m ; d 0.0003 m ,
C
o r A
d
8.85 10 12 6 0.05
6,
0.0003
8.85 10
12

Example ;
1)A capacitor having a capacitance of 80 F is connected
across a 500V d.c. supply. Calculate the charge.
Q CV 80 10 6
500
0.04 C 40 mC
2)A capacitor is made with metal plates and separated by

sheets of mica having a thickness of 0.3 mm and relative
permittivity of 6. The area of one side of each plate is 500
cm square.
the capacitance in microfarads.
GivenCalculate
;
2
A 0.05 m ; d 0.0003 m ,
C
o r A
d
8.85 10 12 6 0.05
6,
0.0003
8.85 10
12

Capacitors in Circuits
1.Capacitors in Series
Connected in series.
Increases the thickness of the dielectric, and so
reduces the total capacitance.
The total capacitance is inversely proportional to the
distance
between the plates.
Total capacitance
The formula we use for capacitors in SERIES (more
1
1
1
1
1
) ;
OR
than 2 capacitors
CT
C1
C 2 C3
Cn
C1C2C3
CT
C1C2 C1C3 C2C3
The charge every capacitor;
QT Q1 Q2 Q3
The voltage in any capacitor;
Q
Q
Q
VC1 T ;VC 2 T ;VC 3 T
C1
C2
C3

1.Capacitors in Series
If TWO capacitors ;
Total capacitance
C1C2
CT
OR
C1 C2
QT Q1 Q2
C2
C1
VC1
V
;
V
V
C2
C1 C2
C1 C2

2.Capacitors in Parallel
Connecting capacitors in parallel effectively
Total capacitanc
e area of the plates.
increases
the
CT C1 C2 C3
VT
VT
VT
QC1
; QC 2
; QC 3
C1
C2
C3
VC1 VC 2 VC 3 VT

Capacitors in Circuits-Example ;
1) What is the approximate total capacitance of this
parallel circuit?
a) 320pF
b) 147pF
c) 3.2nF
d) 1.47nF
2) What is the approximate total capacitance of this

series circuit?
a) 1.6nF b) 576pF
c) 14.4pF
d) 12pF
3) If a voltage is applied across the capacitor network

shown, which individual capacitor has the largest
voltage across it?
a) C1
b) C2
c) C3
d) C4

Energy Stored in a Capacitor
Suppose the p.d. across a capacitor of capacitance, C
dv dt seconds.
farads to be increased from v to (v+dv) volts in
iC
The charging current, i amperes, given
by;
dt
dv
vC
Instantaneous value of power ivto capacitor
is
dt
; watts
dv
dv
vC
dt
v
Cv dv
C dt dt
And energy supplied to capacitor duringdt interval
is
dt
Hence total energy supplied to capacitor when p.d. is

V volts is
1
1
V
increased from
0V
Energy Cv dv C v 2 CV 2 ; joules
1
W CV 2
2
2
1 Q
1 Q2
also W C
2 C
2 C
1
Q
also W QV ; where C
2
V

Example
A 50 F capacitor is charged from 200V supply. After being

disconnected it is immediately connected in parallel with a
30 F capacitor which is initially uncharged. Find;
a)The p.d. across the combination
b)The
electrostatic energies before and after the capacitors
Answer
6 parallel
are
200 0.01C
a) Qconnected
CV 50 10in
When the capacitors are connected in parallel, total
Q CV
capacitors
is 80 F
0.01 80 10 6 p.d .
p.d . across capacitors 125V
1
1
2
b) W CV 2 50 10 6 200 1 Joule
2
2
1
2
In parallel ;W 80 10 6 125 0.625 Joule
2

Exercise;
Three capacitors of 2, 3 and 6 F respectively are

connected in series across a 500V d.c supply. Calculate;
a)The charge on each capacitor
b)The p.d. across each capacitor
c)The energy stored in the 6 F capacitor
Answer
a) 500 C
b) 250V; 166.7V; 83.3V
c) 0.0208 J
ALTERNATING CURRENT
Introduction
a) Direct current (DC) is electricity flowing in a
constant direction, and/or possessing a voltage
with constant polarity (battery-positive and
negative terminals.
b) Certain sources of electricity (most notably,
rotary electro-mechanical generators) naturally
produce voltages alternating in polarity,
reversing positive and negative over time.
c) Either as a voltage switching polarity or as a
current switching direction back and forth, this
kind of electricity is known as Alternating
Current (AC).
ALTERNATING CURRENT
Basic
Generator
AC
a) AC
generator
consists
of
a
conductor, or loop of
wire in a magnetic
field
that
is
produced
by
an
electromagnet.
b) The two ends of the
loop are connected
to slip rings, and
they are in contact
with two brushes.
c) When
the
loop
rotates
it
cuts
magnetic lines of
ALTERNATING CURRENT
Development
of
a
Output
a) Sine-Wave
The sine wave
output is the
result of one
side
of
the
generator loop
cutting lines of
force.
b) In the first half
turn of rotation
this produces a
positive current
and
in
the
second half of
rotation
produces
a
negative
current.
This
ALTERNATING CURRENT
Development of a Sine-Wave Output
Coil Angle
()
e=Vmax.sin
45
90
135
70.71 100 70.71
180
0
225
270
315
-100
70.71
70.71
360
-0
ALTERNATING CURRENT
Radians
Radian, (rad) is a quadrant of
a circle where the distance
subtended
on
the
circumference equals the
radius (r) of the circle.
Since the circumference of
a circle is equal to
Relationship
between
2xradius, there
must be Degress
&
2 Radians
radians around a 360o
circle, so 1 radian =
360o/2=57.3o.
Angular Sinusoidal Waveform
ALTERNATING CURRENT
Radians - Example
The conversion between degrees and radians;
ALTERNATING CURRENT
Sinusoidal Waveform
ALTERNATING CURRENT
v(t ) Vm sin t
i (t ) I m sin t
ALTERNATING CURRENT
Characteristics of a Sine Wave
The main characteristics of an AC waveform are defined
as;
a) The Period, (T) is the length of time in seconds that
the waveform takes to repeat itself from start to
finish.
b) The Frequency, () is the number of times the
waveform repeats itself within a one second time
period. Frequency is the reciprocal of the time period,
(=1/T) with the unit of frequency being the Hertz,
(Hz).
c) The Amplitude (A) is the magnitude or intensity of
the signal waveform measured in volts or amps.
d) The PEAK-TO-PEAK (Vp-p =2 Vp-p ) value is the vertical
distance between the top and bottom of the wave.
e) Average Value (Va = average value=0.637 Vm) - mean
the average value of only half a cycle of the wave..
ALTERNATING CURRENT
Types of Periodic Waveform
Relationship
Between
1
1
Frequency
(
f
)
Hertz
Periodic Time
Periodic Time T
or Periodic Time (T )
Frequency
1
1
sec
Frequency f
Prefix
Definition
Written as
Periodic Time
Kilo
Thousand
kHz
1mS
Mega
Million
MHz
1uS
Giga
Billion
GHz
1nS
Terra
Trillion
THz
1pS
and
ALTERNATING CURRENT
Example 1
The frequency of a 120 V AC circuit is 60 Hz. Find the
following:
a) Angular velocity
b) Angle from reference at 1 msec
c) Induced EMF at that point
Solution 1
a)
2f 2 3.14 60 Hz 376.8 radian sec
b)
t 376.8 rad sec 0.001sec 0.3768 radians
c)
v Vm sin t 120V sin 0.3768 44.15V
Example 2
If a sine wave has a RMS voltage of 12volts, what will be
its Peak-to-Peak voltage?
a) 33.9V
b) 8.484V
c) 16.9V
ALTERNATING CURRENT
Example 3
What is the peak value of a sine wave whose VAV value is
15V?
a) 19V
b) 9.5V
c) 21.2V
d) 23.5V
Example 4
If an AC waveform has a periodic time of 2ms, what will
be its frequency?
a)
b)
c)
d)
2kHz
500Hz
2MHz
50Hz
ALTERNATING CURRENT
Example 5
With reference to Fig 1.3.1, what is the value labelled A?
a)
b)
c)
d)
Periodic time
Amplitude
Frequency
RMS value
Example 6
With reference to Fig 1.3.1, if the level labelled X has a
value of 2V what is the value labelled B?
a) The Root Mean Squared value.
b) The Amplitude.
c) The Average value.
d) The Peak value.
ALTERNATING CURRENT
Example 7
In Fig 1.3.2, how many complete cycles are shown?
a) 2
b) 3
c) 4
d) 7
Example 8
What value is given by the formula VPK x 0.637?
a) VRMS
Example 9
b) VMAX
d) VAV
c) The Form Factor
Complete the sentence "A sine wave...

a) ...has many harmonics
b) ...is a complex wave
c) ...consists of a fundamental only
d) ...always has the same frequency"
ALTERNATING CURRENT
Example 10
What is the direction of an AC current?
a) It is fixed
b)
It keeps
changing
c) It keeps reversing
d)
It cannot be
Example 11
found
All the following statements on alternating current is
true EXCEPT
i. It carries electric charges in the form of sine

wave.
ii. The movement of electric charge reverses
direction repeatedly.
iii. Electric charge flows in two directions.
iv. Current always flows in the same direction
between positive and negative terminal.
a) iv only
ALTERNATING CURRENT
Two Sinusoidal Waveform in-phase
a) Two alternating quantities such as a voltage, v and a
current, i have the same frequency in Hertz.
b) The frequency of the two quantities is the same the
angular velocity, must also be the same.
c) The angle of rotation within a particular time period
will always be the same and the phase difference
between the two quantities of v and i will therefore be
zero and =0.
ALTERNATING CURRENT
Phase Difference of a Sinusoidal Waveform
a) The voltage, v and the current, i have a phase
difference between themselves of30o, so ( =30o
or /6 radians).
b) As both alternating quantities rotate at the same
speed, i.e. they have the same frequency, this phase
difference will remain constant for all instants in time,
then the phase difference of30o between the two
quantities is represented by phi, as shown below.
ALTERNATING CURRENT
Phasor
Diagram
of
a
a) Waveform
The current, i is lagging the
Sinusoidal
voltage, v by angle (30o).

b) The current phasor lags the
voltage phasor by the angle,
, as the two phasors rotate
in an anticlockwise direction.
Phasor Addition of Two Phasors

Consider two AC voltages,
V1 having a peak voltage of
20 volts, and V2 having a
peak voltage of 30 volts
where V1 leads V2 by 60o.
The total voltage, VT of the
two voltages can be found
by firstly drawing a phasor
diagram representing the
RESISTIVE REACTANCE
Purely Resistive Circuit
a) Any ideal resistor can be
described in terms of its
voltage and current, the
voltage across a pure
ohmic resistor is linearly
proportional
to
the
current flowing through it
Purely
as defined Resistive
by Ohm's Law
Waveforms
.
Sinusoidal
Purely
Resistive
Phasor Diagram
Purely
Resistive
Impedance
RESISTIVE REACTANCE
Example 1
Calculate the current and power consumed in a single
phase 240V AC circuit by a heating element which
has an impedance of 60 Ohms. Also draw the
corresponding phasor diagram
Solution 1
RESISTIVE REACTANCE
Example 2
A
sinusoidal
voltage
supply
defined
as:
V(t)=100xcos(t+30o) is connected to a pure
resistance of 50 Ohms. Determine its impedance and
the value of the current flowing through the circuit.
Solution
Draw the2corresponding phasor diagram.
INDUCTIVE REACTANCE
Introduction
a) Inductive Reactance is an inductors resistance in an
AC circuit.
b) Unit : Ohm's ()
c) Symbol : XL, is the property in an AC circuit which
VL
opposes
the
X L change
L in the current.
IL
where; f=frequency (Hz)
X 2fL
L
L=Inductor/Inductance
(Henry)
XL
reactance ()
(radians)
=Inductive
=angular frequency
INDUCTIVE REACTANCE
Purely Inductive
a) Inductor is connected directly across the AC supply
voltage.
b) The supply voltage increases and decreases with the
frequency, the self-induced back emf also increases
and decreases in the coil with respect to this change.
c) In self-induced emf is directly proportional to the rate
of change of the current.
d) The voltage and current waveforms show that for a
purely inductive circuit the current lags the voltage by
90o or the voltage leads the current by 90o.
e) We can define the value of the current at any point in
time as being;
INDUCTIVE REACTANCE
Inductive Reactance Against Frequency
The inductive reactance of an inductor increases as the
frequency across it increases therefore inductive
reactance is proportional to frequency ( XL )
INDUCTIVE REACTANCE
Exercise ;
1) A coil of inductance 150mH and zero resistance is
connected across a 100V, 50Hz supply. Calculate the
inductive reactance of the coil and the current flowing
through it.
2) Calculate the supply voltage (VS) needed to cause a

current of 10mA to flow through a 15mH inductor at a
supply frequency of 400Hz.
INDUCTIVE REACTANCE
Solution ;
3
a) Voltage supplyX ;L 2fL 2(3.14)(400)(15 10 ) 37.7
b) Voltage supply ;VS I L X L (10 10 3 )(37.7) 0.377V 377 mV

3) Which of the following graphs illustrates the formula
2 L ?
4) Calculate the approximate supply voltage needed to

cause a current of 10mA to flow through a 15mH
inductor at a supply frequency of 4kHz .
a) 3.8V
b) 0.4V
c) 37.7V
d) 376mV
INDUCTIVE REACTANCE
5) What is the reactance of the inductor
in Fig 6.5.2?
a) 1.6
b) 31.4
c) 15.9
d) 159
6) What will be the current flowing in
Fig 6.5.2?
a) 628A
b) 15.9mA
c) 6.28mA
d) 1.59mA
CAPACITIVE REACTANCE
Introduction
a) When
the
switch
is
closed, a high current will
start to flow into the
capacitor.
b) The ac voltage, V is
increasing in a positive
direction at its maximum
c) rate
Sinceasthe
rate of the
change
it crosses
zero of the potential difference
across
the plates
reference
axis is
at now
an at its maximum value, the
flow
of current
the capacitor will also be at
instant
in time through
given as
o
its
0
. maximum rate as the maximum amount of
electrons are moving from one plate to the other.
d) As the sinusoidal supply voltage reaches its 90 o point
on the waveform it begins to slow down and for a
very brief instant in time the potential difference
across the plates is neither increasing nor decreasing
therefore the current decreases to zero as there is no
Sinusoidal Waveforms for AC Inductance
Purely Capacitive
VC "lags" IC by 90o, or we can say that IC "leads" VC by 90o
i. Unit : Ohm's ()
ii. Symbol : (XC)
iii. The voltage changes the less current they will pass.
This means then that the reactance of a capacitor is
"inversely proportional" to the frequency of the
supply as shown.
Where:
Ohms,
XC is the Capacitive Reactance in

is the frequency in Hertz
C is the capacitance in Farads, symbol
F
iv. We can also define capacitive reactance in
terms of radians, where Omega, equals 2.
Capacitive Reactance against Frequency
RL SERIES AC CIRCUIT
a) In an AC circuit, inductance,
L and resistance, R the
voltage, V will be the phasor
sum of the two component
voltages, VR and VL.
b) The current flowing through
the coil will still lag the
voltage, but by an amount
less than 90o depending
upon the values of VR and VL.
c) The new angle between the
voltage and the current is
known as the phase angle of
the circuit and is given the
Greek symbol phi, .
d) In a series connected R-L
circuit the current is common
as the same current flows
The voltage triangle is derived from Pythagoras's
theorem and is given as;
The Impedance Triangle
Example No. 1;
A solenoid coil has a resistance of 30 Ohms and an inductance of 0.5H. If the current
flowing through the coil is 4 amps. Calculate,
a) The voltage of the supply if the frequency is 50Hz.
b) The phase angle between the voltage and the current.
Power Triangle
RC SERIES AC CIRCUIT
1) A resistance, R and a capacitance,
C in series.
2) The current flowing through the
resistance and capacitance, while
the voltage is made up of the two
component voltages, VR and VC.
3) The resulting voltage of these two
components
can
be
found
mathematically but since vectors
VR and VC are 90o out-of-phase,
they can be added vectorially by
constructing a vector diagram.
4) The individual vector diagrams for
a pure resistance and a pure
capacitance are given as:
Vector Diagram of the Resultant

Voltage
The RC Impedance Triangle
Example
A capacitor which has an internal resistance of 10's and
a capacitance value of 100uF is connected to a supply
voltage given as V(t) = 100 sin (314t). Calculate the
current flowing through the capacitor. Also construct a
voltage triangle showing the individual voltage drops.
The capacitive reactance and circuit impedance is calculated as:
Then the current flowing through the capacitor is given as:
The phase angle between the current and voltage is calculated from the impedance
triangle above as:
Then the individual voltage drops around the circuit are calculated as:
Then the resultant voltage triangle will be.
RCL SERIES AC CIRCUIT

The Series RLC Circuit
a)Three components, R, L and C have very different phase relationships to
each other when connected to a sinusoidal AC supply.
b)In a pure ohmic resistor the voltage is "in-phase" with the current, in a pure
inductance the voltage "leads" the current by 90o, ( ELI ) and with a pure
capacitance the voltage "lags" the current by 90o, ( ICE ).

Individual Voltage Vectors
Phasor Diagram for a Series RLC Circuit

Voltage Triangle for a Series RLC Circuit
By substituting these values into Pythagoras's equation above for the

voltage triangle will give us:

The Impedance Triangle for a Series RLC Circuit

Example ;
A series RLC circuit containing a resistance of 12, an inductance of 0.15H and
a capacitor of 100uF are connected across a 100V, 50Hz supply. Calculate the
total circuit impedance, the circuits current, power factor and draw the voltage
phasor diagram.

Solution ;
Inductive Reactance, XL.
Capacitive Reactance, XC.
Circuit Impedance, Z.
Circuits Current, I.

Solution ;
Voltages across the Series RLC Circuit, VR, VL, VC.
Circuits Power factor and Phase Angle, .
Phasor Diagram.
QUIZZZZZZZZZZZ
1) State the definition and define formulae of
a) Inductive reactance
b) Capacitive
reactance
2) Calculate the following values;
1) The inductive reactance and capacitive reactance
2) The impedance and current flow through the circuit
3) The power factor and phase angle
R
33
100mH
220F
240 V, 51Hz
3) Three coils in a balanced three phase system are connected with delta
connection, which has a series capacitor value 9.8 F, inductor with 0.8H value
and resistor with 20 Ohm per phase. If this load is connected to a 425V, 50Hz
supply, calculate phase current and reactive power for this connection.
THANK YOU

Chapter 2 - Inductors, Capacitors and Alternating Current Circuits

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CHAPTER 2.

Jabatan Kejuruteraan Mekanikal

EXPLAIN THE BASIC PRINCIPLES OF

Inductors is a passive element.

EXPLAIN THE BASIC PRINCIPLES OF

EXPLAIN THE BASIC PRINCIPLES OF

To smooth out the ripples in a wave of DC circuits

EXPLAIN THE BASIC PRINCIPLES OF

EXPLAIN THE BASIC PRINCIPLES OF

1)Flux Cuts Conductor

Flux cuts conductor

EXPLAIN THE BASIC PRINCIPLES

When the conductor is moved through a magnetic an

Conductor cuts flux

EXPLAIN THE BASIC PRINCIPLES

Bar magnet move in and move out from a solenoid

EXPLAIN THE BASIC PRINCIPLES OF

EXPLAIN THE BASIC PRINCIPLES OF

EXPLAIN THE BASIC PRINCIPLES OF

EXPLAIN THE BASIC PRINCIPLES OF

EXPLAIN THE BASIC PRINCIPLES OF

1 miliHenry (mH) = 1/1000 atau 10-3 Henry (H)

EXPLAIN THE BASIC PRINCIPLES OF

the induction of a voltage in a current-carrying

EXPLAIN THE BASIC PRINCIPLES OF

EXPLAIN THE BASIC PRINCIPLES OF

EXPLAIN THE BASIC PRINCIPLES OF

within the same magnetic field, the emf is said to

EXPLAIN THE BASIC PRINCIPLES OF

Assuming a perfect flux

EXPLAIN THE BASIC PRINCIPLES OF

Here the current flowing in coil one, L 1 sets up a

EXPLAIN THE BASIC PRINCIPLES OF

IL1 = IL2 = IL3 = IAB ...etc.

EXPLAIN THE BASIC PRINCIPLES OF

EXPLAIN THE BASIC PRINCIPLES OF

EXPLAIN THE BASIC PRINCIPLES OF

EXPLAIN THE BASIC PRINCIPLES OF

EXPLAIN THE BASIC PRINCIPLES OF

Total inductance between points A and B, LT:

LT L1 L2 L345678 200 10 3 800 10 3 1.5 2.5 H

EXPLAIN THE BASIC PRINCIPLES OF

EXPLAIN THE BASIC PRINCIPLES OF

Calculate the second inductor branch, LB

Calculate the equivalent circuit inductance, L EQ

Then the equivalent inductance is 15 mH.

EXPLAIN THE BASIC PRINCIPLES OF CAPACITORS

c)Simple capacitors consist of two plates made of an

EXPLAIN THE BASIC PRINCIPLES OF CAPACITORS

EXPLAIN THE BASIC PRINCIPLES OF CAPACITORS

EXPLAIN THE BASIC PRINCIPLES OF CAPACITORS

(large 2.Unpolarised capacitors (small

Tantalum Bead Capacitors

EXPLAIN THE BASIC PRINCIPLES OF CAPACITORS

EXPLAIN THE BASIC PRINCIPLES OF CAPACITORS

EXPLAIN THE BASIC PRINCIPLES OF CAPACITORS

EXPLAIN THE BASIC PRINCIPLES OF CAPACITORS

EXPLAIN THE BASIC PRINCIPLES OF CAPACITORS

EXPLAIN THE BASIC PRINCIPLES OF CAPACITORS

b)Electrons will now flow around the

EXPLAIN THE BASIC PRINCIPLES OF CAPACITORS

EXPLAIN THE BASIC PRINCIPLES OF CAPACITORS

EXPLAIN THE BASIC PRINCIPLES OF CAPACITORS

An approximation of capacitance for any pair of