Chapter 7

Chapter 7 Respiration
7.1 Respiratory Process in

Energy Production
Energy Production In Aerobic Respiration
What Is Respiration
Is living process occurs in two main stages
External Respiration
Is a mechanical process
that maintains a continuous
exchange of gases between
the respiratory surfaces of
organism
and
its
environment
Internal Respiration
Or cellular respiration is
the biochemical process
in which energy produce is
available to all living things
cells.
Aerobic
respiration
Anaerobic
respiration
requires
C6H12O6
glucose
Definition Of Respiration
Process of obtaining oxygen

and delivering it to the cells for
cellular respiration and
removing carbon dioxide
produced by the cells.
Function of
Energy Release
From Respiration
Contractio
n of
muscle
ITeach Biology Form 4
Active
transport
Transmissi
on of
nerve
impulses
Cell
division
The main substrate for

producing energy
C6H12O6
glucose
Energy Production in Aerobic Respiration

Aerobic respiration- Breakdown of glucose in
the presence of oxygen.
C6H12O6 + 6O2 6CO2 +
6H2O + 2898 kJ(38 mol. ATP)
Glucose Oxygen Carbon dioxide Water
Energy
Most of the energy released is used to form

adenosine triphosphate (ATP) from adenosine
diphosphate (ADP) and inorganic phosphate.
ADP + phosphate + energy ATP

ATP acts as a major energy carrier in
cells.
ATP composed of phosphate bonds which
can be easily broken down to release
energy.
energy released
Aerobic respiration occurs in mitochondria


Under normal conditions, external respiration is able to
supply cells with oxygen at a rate that keep pace with ATP
demand.
However, during periods of prolonged physical activity, the
(muscle) cells are forced to do work without enough
oxygen supply.
The body is using ATP more quickly than the lungs and
circulatory system can deliver oxygen to the cells for
cellular respiration.
This will cause a shortfall in oxygen supply.
In such situations, the (muscle) cells undergo anaerobic
respiration.
Anaerobic Respiration
Anaerobic respiration is a process in which the
cells continue to generate ATP without using
oxygen.
Organisms that respire anaerobically are
known as anaerobes.
Eg: bacteria , certain types of yeast
Anaerobic respiration occurs in cytoplasm.
1) In Human Muscle
During vigorous physical activity (running in a
race), the rate of respiration and the rate of
heartbeat increase to deliver more oxygen to
muscle cells.
In spite of the increased breathing rate and
heartbeat rate, the blood cannot supply oxygen
fast enough to meet the demand for ATP.
The muscles are in the state of oxygen
deficiency, are said to incur an oxygen debt.
Under this condition, the muscles obtain the
extra energy from anaerobic respiration.
1) In Human Muscle
During anaerobic respiration, the glucose
molecules break down partially into lactic acid
instead of carbon dioxide.
Due to the incomplete breakdown of glucose,
the energy released is much less than aerobic
respiration.
Every glucose molecule, , anaerobic respiration
generates two molecule of ATP. (150kJ)
Much of the energy is still trapped within the
molecules of lactic acid.
C6H12O6 2C3H6O3+ 150kJ ( 2 mol. ATP)
Glucose lactic acid energy
1) In Human Muscle
The high concentration of lactic acid may
cause muscular cramps and fatigue.
The body need to rest and recover. Fast and
deep breathing enables a person to inhale more
oxygen.
The excess oxygen is used to oxidise the lactic
acid to carbon dioxide and water, which then
are excreted.
Lactic acid + oxygen
carbon dioxide + water + energy
Anaerobic Respiration in Human

Muscle
Therefore, the oxygen debt is the amount of
oxygen needed to remove the lactic acid from
the muscle cells.
The oxygen debt is said to have been paid
when all the lactic acid have been eliminated
through increased breathing. (Fig. 7.1, pg 152)
The small amount of energy generated during
anaerobic respiration, together with that
produced during aerobic respiration , is
sufficient to keep the muscle contacting.
Summary of Anaerobic Respiration in Human

Muscles
2) Anaerobic
respiration
C6H12O6 2C3H6O3+ 150kJ

Glucose
lactic acid energy
1) Vigorous
physical activity
Eg: running in a
race
6) Muscle
return to
5) Lactic acid +
normal
oxygen
Carbon dioxide+
water +energy
3) Oxygen
debt in
muscle
4) Fast
and deep
breathing
Amount of O2
needed to
remove lactic
acid
Anaerobic Respiration in Human

Muscle
Oxidation of lactic acid occurs mainly in the
liver.
Some of the lactic acid is oxidised to produce
energy.
The remaining is converted to glucose and then
to glycogen which is then stored in the muscle
cells.
2) In Yeast
Yeast normally respires aerobically.
However, under anaerobic condition, yeast
carry out anaerobic respiration.
Anaerobic respiration in yeast produces
ethanol instead of lactic acid.
This process is known as fermentation and is
catalysed by enzyme zymase.
C6H12O6
Zymase
2C2H5OH + 2CO2+210 kJ
2) In Yeast
Uses of product from fermentation
process:
1)ethanol: used in beer and wine
production
2) carbon dioxide: causes the dough
to rise in bread
making
Summary
Summary of
of Anaerobic
Respiration In
In
Yeast
Yeast
Aerobic
respiration
Anaerobic
respiration
Fermentation
Produce ethanol
C6H12O6 2C2H5OH + 2CO2+210 kJ
Comparison Between Aerobic Respiration And

Aerobic respiration
Required
Oxygen
requirement
Carbon dioxide and water
Products
32-38 molecules of ATP
Number of ATP
molecules
produced
Not required
Ethanol, carbon dioxide
(fermentation), lactic acid
(muscle cells)
2 molecules of ATP
7.2 The Respiratory Structures

And Breathing Mechanisms In
Humans And Animals
The Respiratory Structures And Breathing Mechanisms In Humans And Animals
Three Common
Characteristic Of The
Respiratory Structure
In Organisms
Has a large
surface
area
Moist
respiratory
surface
Respiratory
surface has thin
wall
The Respiratory Structure Of Insects

The respiratory system in insect (eg.
Grasshopper) is known as tracheal system.
Tracheal system composed of air tubes called
tracheae.
The trachea are reinforced with rings of chitin
which prevent them from collapsing.
Air enters the tracheae through a series of
openings called spiracles.
The Respiratory Structure Of Insect
trachea
Tracheae
- Made up of air
tubes
tracheole
Carbon
dioxide
muscle
spiracle
oxygen
Spiracles
- Have valve which
allow air to go in
and go out

Spiracles located on both sides of thorax and
abdomen.
Spiracles have valve which allow them to open
and close , so that air can go in and out of
body.
The trachea branch into finer tubes called
tracheoles which is direct contact with the
insects tissues and organ.
The large number of tracheoles provides a
larger surface area for the diffusion of gases.

Tracheole
-Provides
surface
area for the diffusion
of gases
-Moist
and
thin
surface
trachea
spiracle
oxygen
tracheole
Carbon
dioxide
muscle
Spiracles
- Have valve which
allow air to go in
and go out

The tips of the tracheoles have thin , permeable
walls and contain fluid in which the gases can
dissolve.
This ensures that the epithelium lining the
terminal ends of the tracheoles remains moist
all the time.
When the air that travels through the tracheoles
reaches the fluid-filled tips, oxygen diffuses
directly into the cells.
While the carbon dioxide diffuses from the cells
into the tracheoles.

Tracheole
-Provides
surface
of gases
-Moist
and
thin
surface
trachea
spiracle
oxygen
tracheole
Carbon
dioxide
muscle
Spiracles
- Have valve which
allow air to go in
and go out
Larger insect, like grasshoppers have air sacs

in their tracheal system.
Air sacs speed up the movement of gases to

and from the insects tissues.
Summary of The Respiratory Structure Of

Insect
Air sacs
- Speed up the
movement of
gases
Tracheole
-Provides
surface
of gases
-Moist
and
thin
surface
trachea
Tracheae
- Made up of air
tubes
tracheole
Carbon
dioxide
muscle
spiracle
oxygen
Spiracles
- Have valve which
allow air to go in
and go out
The Breathing Mechanism Of Insects

Air is drawn into and out of the tracheae by the
rhythmic movements of the abdominal
muscles.
These movement compress and expand the
trachea to speed up the diffusion of gases into
the cells.
The Breathing Mecahanism Of Insects
During inhalation
Abdominal muscles
relax
Spiracles are open
Air
pressure
in
tracheae decrease
Air drawn into body
of insect
During exhalation
Abdominal muscles
contract
Air
pressure
in
tracheae increases
Air move out from
body
of
insects
through spiracle.
The Respiratory Structure Of Fish

oxygen
dissolved in
water
gill arch
gill
filaments
buccal
cavity
deoxygenated
blood
oxygenated
blood
water flow
network of
blood
capillaries
lamella
Respiratory structure of fish is

gills which is specialised for
gaseous exchange.
Bony fish have four pairs of
gills which are protected by
operculum.
Each gill is composed of
filaments
which
are
supported by a gill arch.
The filaments have numerous
thin walled lamellae to
increase the surface area
for gaseous exchange.
The Respiratory Structure Of Fish

oxygen
dissolved in
water
gill arch
gill
filaments
buccal
cavity
The gill filaments have thin

membrane
and rich in
supply of blood capillaries
to
facilitate
efficient
exchange of and transport
of respiratory gases.
deoxygenated
blood
oxygenated
blood
water flow
network of
blood
capillaries
lamella
Since the gills are surrounded

by an aqueous environment,
the problem of keeping the
respiratory surfaces moist
does not arise.
The Breathing Mechanism Of Fish

oxygen
dissolved in
water
gill arch
gill
filaments
buccal
cavity
deoxygenated
blood
oxygenated
blood
water flow
network of
blood
capillaries
lamella
The efficiency of gaseous

exchange is enhanced by
the
countercurrent
exchange mechanism.
This
mechanism
maximises
oxygen
transfer because as water
flows over the gills in one
direction, the blood flows in
opposite direction through
the
capillaries
in
the
lamellae.

oxygen
dissolved in
water
gill arch
gill
filaments
buccal
cavity
deoxygenated
blood
oxygenated
blood
water flow
network of
blood
capillaries
lamella
This
means
as
deoxygenated
blood
enters the capillaries, it
encounters
water
with
higher oxygen content.
Thus, along the capillaries,
the
diffusion
gradient
(lower O2 concentration in
blood capillaries than in
water) allows the transfer
of oxygen into the blood
and carbon dioxide diffuse
out from the blood into the
water.

oxygen
dissolved in
water
buccal
cavity
Operkulum
gill arch
gill
filaments
The breathing mechanism of

a
fish
is
aided
by
ventilation, brought about
by the combined action of
the mouth and operculum.
Ventilation increases the
flow of water over the
respiratory surface.
Fish ventilate by swimming and by opening and closing

the operculum. This draws water into the mouth which
passes over the gills.
Opening of mouth
The floor of the buccal
cavity is lowered.
The pressure in buccal
cavity is lowered.
At the same time, the
operculum remains
close (due to the
water pressure
outside).
As a result, water with
dissolved oxygen
drawn into the mouth.
Closing of mouth
The floor of the buccal
cavity is raised.
The pressure in buccal
cavity is increase.
As a result, water flows
through the lamellae and
gaseous exchange
between blood
capillaries and water
takes place.
The operculum open.
As a result, water with
dissolved oxygen flows
out.
The Respiratory Structure Of Amphibians

Amphibians like frogs live on land and in water.
Therefore, the respiratory surfaces of frogs are
well adapted for efficient gaseous exchange on
land and in water.
Gaseous exchange in frogs occurs through the
skin and lungs.

1) Adaptation of the Skin
When on land or in water, frogs breathe to a
large extent through the skin.
The skin of the frog is thin and highly
permeable to respiratory gases.
The skin is kept moist by the secretion of
mucus by glands found on the surface of the
body.
These characteristics facilitate rapid and
efficient exchange of gases between the skin
and environment.

1) Adaptation of the Skin
Beneath the skin, there is a large number of
blood capillaries
To receive oxygen and transport it to the body
cells.

skin
nostril
bucco-pharyngeal cavity
glottis
lung
lung
Characteristic
Of The Skin Of
A Frog
Thin
Moist
Highly
permeable to
gases
Have a vast
network of blood
capillaries

1) Adaptation of the Lung
The lung of the frogs consist of a pair of thin

walled sac connected to the mouth through an
opening called glottis.
The membrane of the lungs are thin, moist and

covered by a network of capillaries.

skin
nostril
bucco-pharyngeal cavity
glottis
lung
lung
Moist
Characteristic
Of The Lungs
Of A Frog
Have a vast
network of blood
capillaries
Thin
membrane
The Breathing Mechanism of Amphibians

As a frog breathe through its nostrils, the
bucco-pharyngeal floor is lowered and the
glottis closes.
Air is drawn into the bucco-pharyngeal cavity.
The nostrils are then closed while the glottis
open.
As the bucco-pharyngeal floor is raised, the
increased air pressure forces air into the lung.
The lungs expand when air is pushed into
them.
The Breathing Mechanism of Amphibians

When the lung muscle contract, air is expelled
from the lungs.
Some air escapes through the nostrils.

While the rest mixes with the air in the buccopharyngeal cavity.
Summary of The Breathing Mechanism Of Amphibians

Nostrils open to let
more air going into
buccal cavity
Nostrils
open
Glottis closes
The buccopharyngeal
floor is
lowered
Air flows
out from
the lungs
Lung
muscles
contract to expel the
air from the lungs
Nostrils close
The bucco
pharyngeal
floor is raised
The lungs expand and

gaseous exchange
occurs
Air is drawn into

buccopharyngeal
The Special Adaptation of Respiratory

System in Frog
The lung of frogs are not as efficient as the
lungs of humans because they are not
equipped with a rib cage or a diaphragm to aid
in ventilation.
However, the bucco-pharyngeal floor has
strong muscular walls, and is always moving
upwards and downwards to inhale and exhale
air through the nostril.
The Respiratory Structure Of Humans

Gaseous exchange in humans takes place in
the lungs which are located in the thoracic
cavity and protected by a rib cage.
The human respiratory system consists of
structures that conduct air to and from the
lungs (Figure 7.9).
Air enters the lungs through a special tube
called trachea.
The trachea is supported by C-shaped rings of
cartilage which keep the trachea open
permanently to receive air.

Without them, the trachea would collapse
during inhalation, when the atmospheric
pressure outside is higher than the pressure
inside the trachea.
The lower end of the trachea divides into two
primary tubes called bronchi which enter the
right and left lungs.
Within each lung, the bronchus branches
repeatedly into smaller tubes called
bronchioles.
Each bronchiole ends in a cluster of
microscopic air sacs called alveoli.

The lungs consist of millions of alveoli which
provide a huge combined surface area for
gaseous exchange.
It has been estimated that if the alveoli in both
lungs are spread out on a flat surface, they
would cover the entire surface of a tennis
court.
The inner surface of each alveolus is lined with
a layer of moist epithelial cells while the outer
surface is covered by a dense network of blood
capillaries (Figure 7.10).

The vast capillary network provides a large
surface area for rapid diffusion of gases to and
from the alveoli.
Both the wall of an alveolus and the nearby

capillary walls are only one cell thick.
The Breathing Mechanism Of Humans

In humans, the breathing mechanism involves
the combined action of the intercostal muscles
and diaphragm.
There are two sets of intercostal muscles
found between the ribs: the external intercostal
muscles and the internal intercostal muscles
The diaphragm is a dome-shaped sheet of
muscle which forms the bottom wall of the
thoracic cavity.
The Breathing Mechanism Of Humans

Breathing involves the alternate processes of
inhalation and exhalation.
The actions of the intercostal muscles and
diaphragm lead to changes in lung volume.
INHALATION
During inhalation (Figure 7.11(a), the external

intercostal muscles contract while the internal
intercostal muscles relax.
This causes the rib cage to move upwards and
outwards.
At the same time. the diaphragm contracts and
flattens.
This increases the volume of the thoracic
cavity, resulting in reduced air pressure within
the alveoli.
Higher atmospheric pressure outside causes
the air to rush in through the nostrils and fill
the alveoli.
EXHALATION
The process is reversed during exhalation

(Figure 7.11(b)).
The external intercostal muscles relax while
the internal intercostal muscle contract
This causes the rib cage to move downwards
and inwards. At the same time, the diaphragm
relaxes and returns to its original shape.
This decreases lung volume, causing higher
air pressure in the alveoli. Air is forced out of
the lungs.
Summary of Breathing Mechanism Of Humans

Inhalation
Trachea
Carries air
into the
lungs
Lungs
expand
Diaphragm
Contracts,
moves
downward
and flattens
Exhalation
Diaphragm
Exhaled air is
pushed out to
the trachea
Air
Trachea
moves
out
RibsRib
Rib cage moves
Intercostal
upwards as the
muscle
internal intercostal
Lungsmuscles relaxShrink
Diaphragm
relaxes and
moves up
Ribs Rib
cage moves
downwards
as
the
external
intercostal
muscles relax

The Respiratory Structure And
Breathing Mechanism Of Humans
Inhalation
Air is taken into the lungs
Exhalation
Air is pushed out of the lungs.
Inhalation
Exhalation
Trachea
Carries air into
the lungs
Lungs
expand
Diaphragm
Contracts,
moves
downward
and flattens
Diaphragm
RibsRib cage
moves
upwards
as
the
internal
intercostal
muscles
relax
Air moves
Trachea
out
LungsShrink
Rib
Intercostal
muscle
Exhaled air is
pushed out to
the trachea
Ribs Rib
cage moves
downwards
as
the
external
intercostal
muscles
relax
Diaphragm
relaxes and
moves up
7.3 Gaseous Exchange Across The

Respiratory Surfaces And
Transport Of Gases In Humans
THE PROCESS OF GASEOUS EXCHANGE ACROSS THE

SURFACE OF THE ALVEOLUS AND BLOOD CAPILLARIES
In Chapter 3, you learned that diffusion occurs

when there is a concentration gradient
between two regions.
The greater the gradient of concentration
across the respiratory surface, the greater the
rate of diffusion.
Diffusion of a gas depends on differences in
partial pressure between the two regions

The partial pressure of oxygen in the

alveoli is higher compared to the partial
pressure of oxygen in the blood
capillaries.
Therefore, oxygen diffuses across the
surface of the alveolus and blood
capillaries into the blood cells
(Figure 7.12).
To pulmonary vein
From pulmonary artery

On the other hand, the partial pressure

of carbon dioxide is lower in the air of
the alveoli compared to that of the blood
capillaries.
Carbon dioxide diffuses out of the blood
capillaries into the alveoli and is then
expelled through the nose or mouth into
the atmosphere.
To pulmonary vein
From pulmonary artery

Therefore, blood arriving at the lungs via the

pulmonary arteries has a lower partial
pressure of oxygen and a higher partial
pressure of carbon dioxide compared to the
blood leaving the alveoli.
As a result, both gases diffuse down the partial
pressure gradient.
By the time the blood leaves the lungs via the
pulmonary veins, the partial pressure of
oxygen has been increased while the partial
pressure of carbon dioxide has been lowered.
Gaseous Exchange Across The Respiratory Surfaces And Transport Of Gases In Humans
Summary of Gaseous Exchange

Across The Respiratory Surfaces
And Transport Of Gases In Humans
Partial pressure of
oxygen
Partial pressure of
carbon dioxide
Higher partial pressure

of O2 in alveolus and
lower partial pressure
of O2 in blood capillary
cause O2 to diffuse
into blood cells.
Lower partial pressure

of CO2 in alveolus and
higher partial pressure
of
CO2
in
blood
capillary cause CO2 to
diffuse into alveolus.
THE TRANSPORT OF RESPIRATORY GASES IN

HUMANS
a) Transport Of Oxygen
After gaseous exchange has taken place in the
lung, oxygen in the blood that leaves the
alveoli is transported to body cells for cellular
respiration.
In the blood, oxygen combines loosely with the
respiratory pigment called haemoglobin
which is contained in the red blood cells.
Oxygen is then carried in the form of
oxyhaemoglobin to all parts of the body.

HUMANS
a) Transport Of Oxygen
In the lungs
~ the partial pressure of oxygen is high
~ the above reaction is shifted to the right
~ oxyhaemoglobin is formed.
(when blood reach) In the body cells/tissue
~ the partial pressure of oxygen is low
~ the reaction is shifted to the left
~ oxyhaemoglobin dissociates to release the
oxygen molecules. (used for cellular respiration)
The Transport Of Respiratory Gases
In Human
The Transport Of
Oxygen
Oxygen is transported away by
haemoglobin
In the
lungs
In the
body
cells
Haemoglobin + Oxygen
Oxyhaemoglobin
High partial
pressure of
O2
Low partial
pressure of
O2
Oxyhaemoglobin
Haemoglobin+Oxygen

HUMANS
a) Transport Of Carbon dioxide
During cellular respiration, the respiring cells
release carbon dioxide.
It can be transported in three ways.
A) 70% is transported in the blood in the form of
bicarbonate ions HCO3B) 23% of the carbon dioxide combines with
haemoglobin and is transported as
carbaminohaemoglobin.
C) 7% of the carbon dioxide is transported as
dissolved carbon dioxide in the blood plasma.
The Transport Of Carbon Dioxide
Carbon dioxide can be

transported in three ways:
Bicarbonate
ions (HCO3-)
70%
Carbamino
haemoglobin
Dissolved
carbon
dioxide
23%
7%

HUMANS
Carbon dioxide released by body cells diffuses
into the blood plasma and then into the red
blood cells
Then, it reacts with water to form carbonic acid
Red blood cells contain the enzyme carbonic
anhydrase which catalyses this reaction.
Carbon dioxide + water
carbonic acid

HUMANS
Carbonic acid then dissociates to form
hydrogen ions and bicarbonate ions (HCO3).
The bicarbonate ions diffuse from the red
blood cells into the blood plasma.
Most (70%) of the bicarbonate ions are carried
in the blood plasma to the lungs.
The bicarbonate ions diffuse from the blood
plasma into the red blood to form carbonic
acid again.

HUMANS
The process which takes place in the lungs is
the reverse of what takes place in the tissue
capillaries.
The bicarbonate ions diffuse from the blood
plasma into the red blood to form carbonic
acid again.
Carbonic acid breaks down into carbon dioxide
and water before diffusing out of the blood
capillaries and into the alveoli, from which it is
expelled during exhalation.
THE EXCHANGE OF RESPIRATORY GASES

BETWEEN THE BLOOD AND BODY CELLS
In the tissue capillaries, the partial pressure of
oxygen in the blood is higher than the partial
pressure of oxygen in the cells.
This is because cellular respiration depletes
the oxygen content in the cells.
Hence, oxyhaemoglobin breaks down and
releases oxygen, which then diffuses through
the capillary walls into the cells to be used for
cellular respiration.
THE EXCHANGE OF RESPIRATORY GASES

BETWEEN THE BLOOD AND BODY CELLS
In the cells, cellular respiration produces
carbon dioxide
It means the partial pressure of carbon dioxide
in the cell is higher than the partial pressure of
carbon dioxide in the tissue capillaries
As a result, carbon dioxide diffuses out of the
cells, into the tissue capillaries before being
transported back to the lungs (Figure 7.13)
For cellular
respiration
Transported
back to the
lung
THE COMPOSITION OF INHALED AND

EXHALED AIR
What are the differences in the composition
of gases in inhaled and exhaled air?
How does the heat content vary in the
inhaled and exhaled air?
Oxygen is used during cellular respiration.
At the same time, carbon dioxide is
produced.
This causes differences in the composition
of inhaled and exhaled air.
THE COMPOSITION OF INHALED AND EXHALED AIR

Content
Inhaled Exhaled
air
air
(%)
(%)
Reason for differences/

similarity
Oxygen
21
16
Oxygen diffuses into blood from

inhaled air and is used by body
cells in cellular respiration
CO2
0.04
Carbon dioxide produced by body

cells during cellular respiration
diffuses out of blood into air to be
exhaled.
THE COMPOSITION OF INHALED AND EXHALED AIR

Content
Inhaled
air
(%)
Exhaled air
(%)
Reason for differences/

similarity
Nitrogen
79
79
Not used by body cells during

respiration
Water
vapour
Variable
saturated Respiratory surface is moist,

some moistures evaporates
into air to be expired
Temperat
ure
Variable
Body
Air is warmed by body heat as
temperature it passes through respiratory
system.
7.4 The Regulatory

Mechanism In Respiration
THE RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN THE RATE OF RESPIRATION

AND THE OXYGEN AND CARBON DIOXIDE CONTENTS
During a vigorous exercise such as running,

muscle cells need more oxygen and glucose to
produce energy during cellular respiration.
Hence, the rate of respiration increases.
As a result, the oxygen content decreases
while the carbon dioxide content increases.
In order to supply more oxygen to the muscles
and discharge more carbon dioxide from the
lungs, the rate and depth of breathing
increase.
THE RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN THE RATE OF RESPIRATION

AND THE OXYGEN AND CARBON DIOXIDE CONTENTS
This means we breathe faster or the breathing

rate increases to inflate the lungs with more
oxygen with each breath.
At the same time, the heartbeat rate increases
to pump more blood into circulation.
Consequently, more oxygen and glucose can
be supplied for cellular respiration and more
carbon dioxide can be removed from the cells.
Summary of Relationship
Between The Rate Of
Respiration And The O22 And
CO22 Content
Rate of
respiration
increases
Breathing Ventilation
rate increaseincreased
Vigorous
exercise
Rate of
respiration
decreases
(Normal)
CO2 is removed
from cells
O2 content
decrease,
CO2
increase
rate
Lung is filled with

more
O2
each
Heartbeat breath
More O2 and
glucose is
supplied for
respiration of
cellular cells
rate
increase
WHAT IS VENTILATION RATE?
The rate of gaseous

exchange between the
alveoli
and
blood
capillaries.
THE HUMAN RESPIRATORY RESPONSE AND RATE

OF RESPIRATION IN DIFFERENT SITUATIONS
A) When a person is resting

the breathing rate is within the normal range of
16 to 18 breaths per minute while
the heartbeat rate is between 60 to 70 beats per
minute.
B) During vigorous activities (such as
swimming, running, aerobic exercise and
playing games like the badminton)
the breathing rate increases to about 30 breaths
per minute
the heartbeat rate increases to 120 beats per
minute.
THE HUMAN RESPIRATORY RESPONSE AND RATE

OF RESPIRATION IN DIFFERENT SITUATIONS
The increased breathing rate means an

increase in ventilation rate, that is, the rate of
gaseous exchange between the alveoli and
blood capillaries.
The increase in heartbeat rate enables the
blood to deliver more oxygen and glucose to
the cells and at the same time, carbon dioxide
is removed from the cells at a faster rate.
THE HUMAN RESPIRATORY RESPONSE AND RATE OF

RESPIRATION IN DIFFERENT SITUATIONS
C) When a person is in fear

the breathing and the heartbeat rates increase
to meet the demand of a higher respiration rate
in the cells.
The higher respiration rate is needed to
produce more energy for the person to cope
during moments of distress.
At the same time, the adrenal glands secrete
the hormone adrenaline.
This hormone increases the heartbeat rate and
breathing rate
So that more glucose and oxygen are supplied
to the muscle cells.
How do the body control and

regulate the oxygen and carbon
dioxide contents?
We shall now turn our attention
to the regulatory mechanism of
oxygen and carbon dioxide
contents in the body.
THE REGULATORY MECHANISM OF OXYGEN AND

CARBON DIOXIDE CONTENTS IN THE BODY
What controls the breathing rate?
Try holding your breath. You may be able to
hold our breath voluntarily for a short while or
consciously breathe faster and deeper.
But most of the time, breathing is controlled by
an automatic mechanism.
Breathing is an involuntary process which is
controlled by the respiratory centre located in
the medulla oblongata of the brain (Figure
7.14).

During vigorous exercise, the partial pressure
of carbon dioxide increases as a result of
active cellular respiration.
Because carbon dioxide reacts with water to
form carbonic acid, the higher level of carbon
dioxide in the blood results in a drop in the pH
value of the blood and tissue fluid bathing the
brain (cerebrospinal fluid)

The chemical content of the blood is monitored
by chemoreceptors.
The drop in pH is detected by central
chemoreceptors found in the medulla
oblongata.
The central chemoreceptors send nerve
impulses to the respiratory centre which in
turn sends nerve impulses to the diaphragm
and intercostal muscles
This causes the respiratory muscles to
contract and relax faster.

This then increases the breathing and
ventilation rates.
Excess carbon dioxide is eliminated from the
body
Carbon dioxide concentration and pH value of
the blood return to normal levels.

In addition to the central chemoreceptors,
peripheral chemoreceptors called the aortic
bodies and carotid bodies are also sensitive to
both the carbon dioxide content and the pH of
the blood.
These are specialised structures located in the
walls of the aorta and carotid arteries in the
neck (Figure 7.15).

The oxygen content in the blood usually has

little effect on the respiratory centre.
However, when the oxygen level is severely

low, for example, at very high altitudes, the
peripheral chemoreceptors are stimulated and
send nerve impulses to the respiratory centre.

This in turn stimulates the respiratory muscles
to contract and relax faster.
As a result, the breathing and ventilation rates
increase.
More oxygen is inhaled, and the oxygen
concentration returns to the normal level.

Usually, a rise in carbon dioxide concentration

is a better indication of a drop in oxygen
concentration, because both the carbon
dioxide and oxygen concentrations are
affected by the same process, that is, cellular
respiration.
The Regulatory Mechanism In Respiration

Summary of The Regulatory Mechanism Of
Oxygen And Carbon Dioxide Contents In The
Body
Chemoreceptor in carotid bodies and aortic

bodies are stimulated when:
Concentration of O2 decreases
Concentration of CO2 increases
Blood pH changes
Nerve impulses are sent to medulla oblongata
Information are analysed and impulses are sent

to intercostals muscles and diaphragm
Cerebrum
Cerebellum
Medula
oblongata
Intercostal
diaphragm
More O2 is absorbed and more CO2 is excreted.
Rate of heartbeat also increases to pump the

blood to body cells
7.5 The Importance Of Maintaining

A Healthy Respiratory System
THE IMPORTANCE OF MAINTAINING A HEALTHY

RESPIRATORY SYSTEM
The lungs are one of the most important
organs in our body.
The entire respiratory tract has a moist, warm,
mucous membrane lining which is constantly
exposed to the environment.
The air we inhale contains dust, soot, various
irritants and harmful pollutants.

RESPIRATORY SYSTEM
A smoker inhales smoke which contains toxic
gases like carbon monoxide as well as tar, and
nicotine directly into the lungs.
The function of the lungs can become impaired
by the presence of these chemical substances.
Look at the condition of the lungs in
Photograph 7.2. Why do the lungs in
Photograph 7.2(b) look black?
The lungs in Photograph 7.2(a) are healthy lungs

while the lungs in Photograph 7.2(b) are lungs
damaged by smoking.

RESPIRATORY SYSTEM
Every year, hundreds of thousands of people
around the world die from diseases related to
smoking.
One in every two lifetime smokers will die from
their habit. Cigarettes are full of harmful
chemicals and poisons
Cigarette smoke contains over 4000
chemicals, which include tar, nicotine, carbon
monoxide, acetone, benzene and
formaldehyde. Many of these chemicals are
carcinogenic compounds which increase the
The Importance Of Maintaining A Healthy Respiratory System
The Importance Of Maintaining A

Healthy Respiratory System
cause
Contains toxic gases,

tar and nicotine
Lung cancer
Healthy lung
EFFECT OF CARBON MONOXIDE

TO THE RESPIRATORY SYSTEM
Carbon monoxide will compete with oxygen
to combine with haemoglobin in red blood
cells to form carboxyhaemoglobin.
This is because haemoglobin has higher
affinity to combine with carbon monoxide
compare to oxygen.
Formation of carboxyhaemoglobin reduces
the efficiency of oxygen transport in red
blood cells.
If concentration of carbon monoxide greater
than 1%, this can cause death.
7.6 Respiration In Plants
ENERGY REQUIREMENT IN PLANTS

Just like animals, plants respire aerobically to
obtain energy for metabolism
They derive most of their energy from cellular

respiration.
During cellular respiration, plant cells take in
oxygen and produce carbon dioxide
ENERGY REQUIREMENT IN PLANTS
Although plants cannot photosynthesise in

darkness, respiration still occurs because
plants need energy continuously to sustain
their living processes
However, the energy requirement for living
processes in plants is much lower than
animals because plants do not move about like
animals do.
THE INTAKE OF OXYGEN BY PLANTS FOR

RESPIRATION
Unlike animals, plants have no specialised
organs for gaseous exchange
Most plants take in oxygen through leaves,
stems and roots. These parts provide a large
surface area for gaseous exchange
Gaseous exchange between plant cells and the
environment occurs by diffusion, mainly
through stomata and lenticels.
LENTICEL

RESPIRATION
Each stoma consists of a pore surrounded by
two guard cells.
The guard cells contain a large number of
chloroplasts in which photosynthesis takes
place.
The stomata of most plants open when there is
light and they close in the dark (Photograph
7.3).
STOMATA
STOMATA

RESPIRATION
Lenticels are raised pores found on the stems
and roots (Photograph 7.4).
The cells around the lenticels are arranged
loosely to allow the diffusion of gases into and
out of the plant tissues.
Stomata connect the air spaces inside a leaf
with the atmosphere.

RESPIRATION
The air spaces in the leaves are connected to

those of the stems and roots.
Oxygen from the atmosphere diffuses quickly
into the air spaces and then into the mesophyll
cells.
During aerobic respiration, oxygen
concentration in the cells is lower than the
concentration of oxygen in the air spaces.
The difference in concentration gradient allows
oxygen to diffuse continuously from the air
spaces into the cells.

RESPIRATION
Carbon dioxide which is produced during

aerobic respiration is used in photosynthesis
during the day.
Excess carbon dioxide diffuses into the air

spaces and then through the stomata into the
atmosphere (Figure 7. 16).
Respiration In Plants
The
The Intake
Intake Of
Of Oxygen
Oxygen By
By Plants
Plants For
For Respiration
Respiration
Curved guard cells
Wide-open
stoma
straight guard cells
Closed
stoma
Epidermis
cell
An open stoma. The

stomata of plants are
normally open during the
day to allow the exchange
of carbon dioxide and
oxygen.
A closed stoma. The

stomata of a plant may be
close on a hot day to
reduce the loss of water.
AEROBIC AND ANAEROBIC RESPIRATION

IN PLANTS
Aerobic respiration is usually carried out by
plants throughout the day and night.
However, under certain conditions, plants can
also carry out anaerobic respiration for short
periods.
For example, during flooding, plants can
survive for several days completely
submerged in water.
AEROBIC AND ANAEROBIC RESPIRATION

IN PLANTS
Rice plants can survive for weeks in the

waterlogged condition of the paddy fields.
Anaerobic respiration also occurs during the

initial stages of germination when the embryo
is completely enclosed within an airtight seed
coat.
RESPIRATION AND PHOTOSYNTHESIS

Respiration and photosynthesis are dependent
on each other.
Photosynthesis produces the raw materials for
respiration, and respiration produces the raw
materials for photosynthesis.
What is the difference between the process of
respiration and the process of
photosynthesis?
The
TheRelationship
Relationship
Between
BetweenRespiration
Respiration
And
AndPhotosynthesis
Photosynthesis
Respiration
C6H12O6 + 6O2 6CO2 + 6H2O +

Energy
Photosynthesis
6CO2+12H2O
Light energy
Chlorophyll
C6H12O6 + 6O2 + 6H2O
Carbon
Carbondioxide
dioxidein
inrespiration
respirationis
isused
usedrapidly
rapidlyin
in
photosynthesis
photosynthesis process
process
COMPENSATION POINT
During the night, plants only carry out
respiration.
As light intensity increases during the day, the
rate of photosynthesis also increases.
Photosynthesis uses carbon dioxide from
respiration and produces oxygen needed for
respiration.
COMPENSATION POINT
Eventually, a point is reached whereby all the
carbon dioxide produced during respiration is
reused during photosynthesis
At this point, there is no net gain or loss in
carbon dioxide by the plant and no net gain or
loss in the sugar produced.
The plant has reached the compensation point.
COMPENSATION POINT
The compensation point is the light

intensity at which the rate of carbon
dioxide production during respiration
is equal to that of carbon dioxide
consumption during photosynthesis.
Compensation
Point
Is when all carbon dioxide produced
during respiration is reused during
photosynthesis.
Rate of CO2 produced = Rate of CO2
(respiration)
consumed
(photosynthesis)
COMPENSATION POINT
As light intensity continues to increase during
the day, the rate of photosynthesis becomes
faster than the rate of respiration.
The plant must now take in carbon dioxide
from the atmosphere to supplement the need
for a higher requirement of carbon dioxide.
At the same time, the plant releases excess
oxygen into the atmosphere.
COMPENSATION POINT
What happens if the rate of photosynthesis
and the rate of respiration remain at the
compensation point?
For growth, reproduction and lied production
to be possible in plants, the rate of
photosynthesis must exceed the rate of
respiration on a daily basis
This enables the rate of sugar production to
exceed the rate of sugar consumption
COMPENSATION POINT
Therefore, the excess sugar can be used for
growth and other vital living processes in
plants.
At the same time, the excess oxygen produced
during photosynthesis is released into the
atmosphere to sustain living things.
THE END

Chapter 7

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Chapter 7

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Chapter 7 Respiration

7.1 Respiratory Process in

Energy Production In Aerobic Respiration

Process of obtaining oxygen

Energy Production In Aerobic Respiration

ITeach Biology Form 4

The main substrate for

Energy Production In Aerobic Respiration

Energy Production in Aerobic Respiration

Most of the energy released is used to form

Energy Production In Aerobic Respiration

Energy Production in Aerobic Respiration

Aerobic respiration occurs in mitochondria

Energy Production in Aerobic Respiration

Anaerobic respiration occurs in cytoplasm.

carbon dioxide + water + energy

Anaerobic Respiration in Human

Summary of Anaerobic Respiration in Human

C6H12O6 2C3H6O3+ 150kJ

Anaerobic Respiration in Human

Energy Production In Aerobic Respiration

C6H12O6 2C2H5OH + 2CO2+210 kJ

ITeach Biology Form 4

Energy Production In Aerobic Respiration

Comparison Between Aerobic Respiration And

Carbon dioxide and water

32-38 molecules of ATP

ITeach Biology Form 4

7.2 The Respiratory Structures

ITeach Biology Form 4

The Respiratory Structures And Breathing Mechanisms In Humans And Animals

ITeach Biology Form 4

The Respiratory Structure Of Insects

The Respiratory Structures And Breathing Mechanisms In Humans And Animals

The Respiratory Structure Of Insect

The Respiratory Structure Of Insects

The Respiratory Structures And Breathing Mechanisms In Humans And Animals

The Respiratory Structure Of Insect

The Respiratory Structure Of Insects

The Respiratory Structures And Breathing Mechanisms In Humans And Animals

The Respiratory Structure Of Insect

The Respiratory Structure Of Insects

Larger insect, like grasshoppers have air sacs

Air sacs speed up the movement of gases to

The Respiratory Structures And Breathing Mechanisms In Humans And Animals

Summary of The Respiratory Structure Of

The Breathing Mechanism Of Insects

The Breathing Mecahanism Of Insects

The Respiratory Structures And Breathing Mechanisms In Humans And Animals

The Respiratory Structure Of Fish

ITeach Biology Form 4

Respiratory structure of fish is

The Respiratory Structures And Breathing Mechanisms In Humans And Animals

The Respiratory Structure Of Fish

The gill filaments have thin

ITeach Biology Form 4

Since the gills are surrounded

The Respiratory Structures And Breathing Mechanisms In Humans And Animals

The Breathing Mechanism Of Fish

ITeach Biology Form 4

The efficiency of gaseous

The Respiratory Structures And Breathing Mechanisms In Humans And Animals

The Breathing Mechanism Of Fish