ELECTRICAL SYSTEM

DESIGN AND
ESTIMATION
The Electrical Age was born
in 1881 when Thomas
Edison invented the
incandescent lamp
K.N. Chandra Bose
Asst.Professor
Electrical Engg. Dept.
Govt. Engg. College,

Why is electrical system design and

estimation?
It is the language of engineers which providing

proper communication to the peoples around

the world, so that a particular word means the
same thing to every one and every where.
This is possible through graphical symbols.
In India symbols are standardized by Bureau of
Indian Standards.
IS:2032 gives a list of standards.

Role of National Electric code

What is National electric code or NEC?
The National Electrical Code (NEC), or NFPA 70, is a

United States standard for the safe installation of electrical

wiring and equipment. It is part of the National Fire Codes
series published by the National Fire Protection Association
(NFPA). "National Electrical Code
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/National_Electrical_Code#Structure_of_the_NEC

Why it is necessary?
In single word, it is for security measures, in all
respects

ELECTRICAL SYMBOLS AND

DIAGRAMS
Each and every part of electrical installation is

explained by symbols.
Which are very necessary to convey exact
meaning to the peoples who read the drawing
Symbols are standardized by Bureau of Indian
Standards
Electrical Diagrams:
The diagrams are classified according to the
purpose and the method of representation.
Classification of diagrams according to

purpose:
Wiring diagram: a wiring diagram shows the

connections of an installation or part of an

 IS 2042 (part-1)-1962 defines a wiring diagram

the wiring diagrams are intended to guide the

execution and checking of the internal and external
or both connections of an installation or part of the
installation.
Which also gives the layout of various parts and
accessories of wiring.

Circuit diagram (schematic):

This is an explanatory diagram meant for easy
understanding of the operation of an electric circuit.
The diagram is arranged in such a way that as far as
possible every circuit is drawn in a straight line in
order that it may easily be followed.
Therefore the diagram should be as simple and clear
as possible.

 IS:2032(part-1)-1962 defines a circuit diagram

as an explanatory diagram indented to

facilitate the understanding of the details of the
operation.
Example:

Important points to be noted while drawing a

schematic diagram
1. The supply line should be drawn horizontal while

2.
3.
4.

5.
6.

the different circuit connections should be

drawn vertical.
Branched circuits of equal importance should
be drawn similar to one another.
Switches, push buttons and contacts should be
drawn in non-actuated position.
When there is a sequence of operations the
circuit which is actuated first should be drawn
more to the left.
Crossing of lines should be avoided as far as
possible.
The phase line must be drawn left pole of the

Design considerations:
Electrical installation consists various sorts of

controls at various stages.

Main switch and distribution board are kept at the
place where the KSEB line enters.
Other controls, switches and regulators in a
particular room for controlling lights, plug points
and fans.
These must be kept in an appropriate panel boards
as per the regulations.
The panel board selection is also depend on the
type of equipments and nature of the supply given.
The panel for the distribution board may be made
of well prepared teak wood or iron sheet.

The energy meter and other associated main control

circuits are mounted on them.

The design of a panel board involves, selecting proper

material of appropriate dimensions and calculating

desired number of switches, regulators and sockets in
such a manner as to give good appearance.
For large building wirings, number of sub-circuits are
incorporated in addition to the main distribution board.
The number of circuits and sub-circuits are decide as
per number of points to be wired and load to be
connected.

Fluorescent lamp - 40W

Bulb, fans, socket outlets 60W
Power socket outlets 1000W
Exhaust fans - as per the capacity

 In each sub-circuit, the number of points are

limited by the load, max of 750W.

Two methods of wiring known as

1. Joint box or Tee system
2. Loop system
In joint box system, the connection to the lamps

are made through joints made in joint box,

which will be somewhere in horizontal circuit
path.
This method is not preferred much now a days
owing to its draw backs.
Extra cost for joint box
Reduce flexibility

 Loop- in system:
Universally employed method
The switch and light feeds are carried around the
circuit in a series of loops from one point to another
until the last point on the circuit is reached.
The phase or line conductors are looped either in
switch board or box and neutrals are looped either in
switch board or from the points (light, fan etc)
In no case joint is to be made in the run of wire

 Merits
Joint

box is removed
Fault identification is easy
More secure than joint box type
No joints are concealed beneath the
floor and in roof spaces
Demerits:
More wire is required which leads to
more drops
Loop in switches and lamp holders is
usually difficult.

SYSTEM OF WIRING:

Internal wiring in our country

Cleat wiring
Wooden casing and capping wiring
CTS or TRS wiring
Lead sheathed wiring
Conduit wiring
a)
Surface or open type
b)
Concealed type

1.Cleat wiring:

Cables used are of VIR or PVC type.

Cables are held by porcelain cleats of 6mm.
Cleats are made in two halves (base & cap)
The whole is then screwed on woodenplugs previously cemented into the wall.

 To ensure longer life, cleats must be used at intervals of 30cm and in

no case at more than 60cm.

Advantages:
Cheapest system of internal wiring
Installation and removal is easy and quick
Material is recoverable after the dismantlement
Inspection, addition and alterations can be easily made
Skill required is little.
Disadvantages:
Not good looking
Wires are exposed to mechanical injury or damage
Any damage to the insulation directly leads to electric shock.

2. Wooden casing and capping wiring:

The cables used in this type of wiring is either VIR, PVC or any
other approved insulated cables.
The cables runs through the wooden casing enclosures.
Casing consists of V- shaped grooves.

Capping is screwed to casing by means of 13mm 4

wooden screws fixed at every 15cm.
Two or three cables of same polarity may be run in one
groove and in no case the cables of opposite polarity.
Suitable for low voltage domesticinstallations in dry places and wherethere is no risk of fire hazards

Advantages:

Cheap in cost
Easy to install and rewire
Permanently fixed
Provides good insulation as conductors
are good distance
casing
apart.
Easy to inspect the wiring by opening the capping.

Disadvantages:

Risk of fire
Requires workmanship, so the labour cost is more.

Precautions to be taken:
The casing-capping used must be of first class

seasoned straight, smooth and hard teak wood.

Cable of opposite polarity should not run in one
grove.
Casing must be kept at least 3.2mm apart from
the walls or ceilings by means of porcelain pieces
of thickness not less than 6.5mm in order to keep
the casing dry at the back.
Gaps should be avoided
At bends the grooves must be rounded off in
order to save insulation of cable from damage.
The casing and capping must be painted with the
paint as specified in IS.732 before erection.

CTS or TRS wiring

The cable used must of single core, two core or

three core TRS cables with a circular oval shape.

TRS cables are sufficiently chemical proof, steam
proof but are slightly affected by lubricating oils.
TRS cables run on well seasoned, perfectly
straight and varnished teak wood batten of
thickness 10mm at least.
The cables are held on the wood batten by
means of tinned brass link clips already fixed on
the batten with brass pins.
The whole structure is painted as specified in IS
732

Merits:
Installation is easy and quick
Long life
Fire proof up to certain level
Absolutely free from chemical reactions.
Demerits:
Good workmanship is required
Cannot be recommended in all palaces, such as
open to sun and rain falls.
Field of application:- commonly used for low voltage
wiring and is extensively used for lighting in
domestic, commercial or industrial buildings
except workshops

Lead sheathed wiring:

This type of wiring employs conductors insulated with

VIR and is covered with an outer sheath of leadaluminium alloy containing about 95% lead.
Metal sheath give protection to the cable from
corrosion, dampness, and mechanical injury.
The lead covering is made electrically continuous and
is connected to earth at the point of entry.
These cables run on wooden batten and fixed by
means of linked clips.

Merits:

Provides better protection

Easy to fix
Long life
Free from electric shock

Demerits:
Good workmanship is required
It is costlier than TRS wiring
It is not suitable for places where chemical
corrosion may occur.
Skilled labour and proper supervisions is
required.
Precautions to be taken during installation
The clips used to fix the cables on battens should not
react with the sheath.
Lead sheath should be properly earthed to prevent
shocks due to leakage currents.
Cables should not be run in damp places and in areas
where chemicals (may react with the lead) are used.

Conduit wiring:
Steel tubes are installed on the surface of walls by
means of saddles and VIR or PVC cables are drawn into
afterwards by means of a GI wire of about 18swg.
The conduits must be electrically and mechanically
continuous and connected to earth at some suitable
point.
Conduit size is stated in terms of its outer diameter.
The smallest size of conduit is 12mm, and is seldom
used in practice except in cheap competitive work.

In general the conduits can be classified as:

Light gauge steel plain
Heavy gauge steel screwed conduit
Flexible conduit
PVC conduit

Advantages:
Protection against mechanical damage
Fire protection
Provides water proof
Shock proof if proper earthing has been done.
Disadvantages:
Very costly
Difficult in erection and requires more time
Experienced and skilled persons are required

DESIGN CONSIDERATIONS:
FACTORS AFFECTING THE CHOICE OF WIRING
SYSTEM:
Depends on technical factors and economic
viability
1. Durability: Type of wiring selected should
conform to standard specifications, so that it is
durable i.e. without being affected by the weather
conditions, fumes etc.
2. Safety: The wiring must provide safety against
leakage, shock and fire hazards for the operators.
3. Appearance: Electrical wiring should give an
aesthetic appeal to the interiors.
contd

4.

Cost: It should not be prohibitively expensive.

5. Accessibility: The switches and plug points

provided should be easily accessible. There must be
provision for further extension of the wiring system,
if necessary.

6. Maintenance Cost: The maintenance cost

should be a minimum

7. Mechanical safety: The wiring must be

protected against any mechanical damage.

For the sake of completeness, the following points to be

Considered.

Specification of Wires:
conductor material, insulation, size and the number of
cores
Standard values of voltages
Voltage limits for AC system
Distance from Electric Lines
Wiring Installations

Standard values of voltages:

The standard values of voltages given in IS: 585 1962.
For a single phase 2- wire system of AC, the

standard voltage shall be 240V.

Three phase system it may be:

415 V, 3.3 kV, 6.6 kV, 11 kV, 22 kV, 33 kV, 66 kV, 110
kV, 132 kV, 220 kV and 400 kV

The standard dc voltage shall be 220 / 440 V

Voltage limits for AC system:

The voltage at any point of the system under

normal conditions shall not depart from the

declared voltage level by more than the values
given;

6% in the case of low voltage (250V or less) and

medium voltage (251 to 650 V)

6% in the higher side or 9% on the lower side in
case of High voltage (651 V to 33 kV)
12.5% in case of Extra High voltage ( above 33
kV)

Distance from Electric Lines:

No building shall be allowed to be erected or re-

erected, or any additions or alterations made to

the existing building unless the following
minimum clearances are provided from the over
head electric supply lines.

Voltage range

(m)

(m)

2.5

1.2

Up to 11 kV

3.7

1.2

Above 11 kV up to33 kV

3.7

2.0

3.7

2.0

(a) Low & medium Voltage lines

(b) High voltage
lines

Vertical Horizontal

(c) Extra high voltage lines

Note:For extra high voltage lines apart from the minimum

clearance indicated, a vertical and horizontal clearance of 3.0
m from every additional 33 kV or part thereof shall be
provided.

Wiring Installations:
A major portion of the fixed installation design
in a building relates to wiring installation.
1.

Fittings and Accessories

2.

Reception and Distribution of Main Supply

3.

Conduit wiring

1. Fittings and Accessories

A ceiling rose or any other attachment

shall not be used on a circuit.

Each socket outlet shall be controlled by a
switch which shall preferably be located
very near to the socket.
Ordinary socket outlet may be fixed at any
convenient position at a height above 20
cm (minimum) from the floor level.

 In an earthed system, the third pin must be

connected to earth terminal.

All lamps unless otherwise specified shall be
hung at a height of not less than 2.5 m above
floor level.
Unless otherwise specified, the clearance
between the bottom most point of the ceiling
fan and the floor shall be not less than 2.4 m.
The minimum clearance between the ceiling
and the plane of the blade shall be not less
than 30 cm.

Reception & Distribution of Main Supply:

A circuit breaker or a linked switch with

fuse on each live conductor at the point

of entry is mandatory.
The main switch is easily accessible and
situated near to the termination of
service line.
Distribution Box (DB) must be provided
with fuse unit or MCB (miniature circuit
breaker) of adequate rating.

 Lights and fans may be wired on a common

circuit.
Sub-circuit load is limited by max. of 10 points or

800 watts (which ever is lower).

Power sub-circuit shall be designed according to

the load but in no case shall there be more than

two 15 A outlets on each sub-circuit.
Load on low voltage sub-circuit should not exceed

3000W and a provision for 20% increase is

expected.

 Distribution board shall be fixed at the load

centre if possible.
The DB shall not be above 2 meter from floor
level.
Wiring conductor can be either copper or
aluminium.
Minimum cross sectional area for light subcircuit shall be not less than 1mm2 and 1.5mm2
for copper and aluminium respectively.
For power circuit, it shall be not less than
2.5mm2 and 4mm2 for copper and aluminium
respectively.
For flexible cord, the minimum cross sectional
area shall be 0.5 Sq. mm copper.

Conduit wiring:
Rigid non-metallic conduits are used for

surface, recessed and concealed conduit

wiring.
Conductors of ac supply and dc supply shall

be bunched in separate conduits.

Maximum permissible number of 1.1 kV

grade single core cables may be drawn

through conduits.

Size of cable
cross
sectional
area (Sq.
mm)

Number

Size of conduit (mm)

16

20

25

32

40

50

and
diameter

Number of cables, maximum

(in mm) of
wires

1/1.12

13

20

1.5

1/1.40

10

14

2.5

3/1.06

10

14

7/0.85

10

14

7/1.40

11

10

7/1.40

16

7/1.70

12

25

7/2.24

35

7/2.50

50

19/1.80

ELECTRIC SUPPLY SYSTEM:

Power or electricity is generated at power
station, which is located at far away from
the consumer.
Thus power supply is done in two stages.

Transmission
Distribution

Generation is in three-phase, 50Hz,

usually at 11kV
Stepped up to 132,220 or 400kV
At secondary sub-stations stepped down
to 66 or 33kV
Again down to 11, 6.6 or 3.3kV and then

 Small consumers are supplied at

415/240V
Large consumers are supplied at 11, 6.6
or 3.3kV.

Such consumers has to provide there own

sub-stations.

250V or less :
251 to 650V :

Low voltage
Medium voltage
651 to 33kV : High voltage
Above 33kV : Extra high voltage

3-, 4 wire distribution system:

Electric power in India is supplied to the

consumers by the State Electricity Boards.

Standardization of voltage and frequency is
extremely important.
Supplier and consumer must aware about
balanced load on the system.
Consumer with load demand more than
250kVA are provided with high voltage supply
with substation installed in the consumers
premises.
For large consumers it is economical.

Points to be considered:

Supply voltage
Voltage tolerance
Conductors and cables
Rating of cables
Voltage drop

Under the Indian electricity rule, the voltage

fluctuation may not vary by more than 5% above

or below the declared voltage and the frequency
must be within plus or minus 1% of the declared
value.
Rubber insulation has been replaced by PVC from
1950.

Cables rating is based on temperature.

The rating of cables are given in IS: 3961.
The selected cable size should be able to carry

maximum expected level of current.

The main consideration is on the effective length
of wire.
For short length, the nearest size as per the
calculation of current can be selected.
For long length, it is necessary to select 1 or 2
size larger than the minimum rating.
The drop of voltage shall not exceed 2.5% of
normal voltage.

PROTECTION OF ELECTRIC
INSTALLATION
PROTECTIVE DEVICES
Protection for electrical installation must be provided
in the event of faults .
The protective circuit or device must be fast acting .

Fuses
Relays
Miniature circuit breakers (MCB)
Earth leakage circuit breakers (ELCB

Basic consideration:
Ready means of isolation of a circuit in the event

of accident.
Conductors used should have adequate size
Protection should be provided against excess
current and electric shock.

Against Excess current

Against short circuit
Against earth fault
Fuses and circuit breaker
Electric shock

Protection against over current

Any current beyond the rated value is called
excess current.
Causes can be overloads, short circuit, earth
fault etc.
Over currents causes excessive heat.

Protection against short circuit:

Short circuit may be due to insulation failure or

direct contact of phase and neutral line.

Fuses or circuit breakers can be used as protector.

Protection against Earth fault:

Phase wire making contact with earth conductor

leads to heavy current flow.

For domestic installations fuse can act as
protector.
High power installation high ratings of fuse or
earth fault relay can be used
ELCB is the best device for earth fault
protection.
Very small difference between the input and
return currents is what the ELCB is designed
to detect.

The importance of earthing

Electric Shock Injuries

What happen when you get the electric
shock ?
Effects of the shocks:
> 1 mA
* A normal person will feel a slight tingling
sensation.
> 5 mA
*A mild shock will be felt, but most persons will
be able to let go. Not a painful feeling, but
definitely disturbing. However, a strong reflexive
movement
by the victim can cause further
accidents and other type of injuries.

>6 to 30 mA
*The victim can be paralyzed, or the muscles
will freeze (will not be able to release a tool,
wire, or
other object. Painful, and may not go.
At high voltage (above 600 Volt, this current
can already cause severe burns).
*Women start to suffer the effect at lover current
levels (6-26mA), while men can sustain until a bit
higher (10 to 30 mA)
Defibrillator in use

>30 mA
Will cause respiratory paralysis
(The victim stops breathing for a period of time)

> 30 mA
This is the most sensitive rating of Earth
Leakage Circuit Breakers (ELCB) normally
installed in residential home in this country.
> 50 to 150 mA
The victim get an extremely painful shock.
The breathing stops (respiratory arrest).
Severe muscle contraction: flexor muscles
may cause holding on, extensor muscles may
cause intense pushing away. Death is
possible.
(At 75 mili-Ampere and above The victim undergo

ventricular fibrillation (very rapid, ineffective heartbeat). This

condition can cause death within a few minutes. The only way
to save the victim is by a special device called defibrillator.)

> 1 A and above

Uneven heartbeats occurs (Ventricular fibrillation).The muscles

will contract. Damage to the nerves. Death is likely.

>4A
The victim gets heart paralysis, which means the heart stops

pumping.

> 5 A and above

Human tissues get burned.

> 10 A and above

Cardiac arrest and severe burns. Death is probable.

> 13 A
The lowest current a typical plug fuse will blow in a socket
plug supply connection.
> 15 A
Lowest level of current a normal circuit breaker or fuse will
trip at a home distribution board, or a house electrical panel.

Fuses and circuit breakers:

Ideal protective device should be expected to

break the circuit

Any circuit take initial high current for a fraction
of second while switch on
Soon it falls to normal value.
The severity of high current mealy depends on
the time they exists.
If high current occurs and persists for a very
small interval of time, then it dont affect the
system.

Residual Current Circuit Breakers (RCCB)

In the event of a short to earth the residual
current operated system prevents shockhazard.
RCCB monitors the difference between the
load currents flowing through it and ensures
that it is approximately zero.
RCCB operate when the fault current is above
residual operating current setting.

Connection Diagram for Single

Phase

EARTHING:
The potential of the earth is considered to be

at zero for all practical purposes.

The body of any electrical equipment is
connected to the earth by means of a wire of
negligible resistance.
Copper plate is placed at a depth of 2.5 to 3
meters from the ground level

The earth resistance is affected by the following

factors:
Material properties of the earth wire and the electrode
Temperature and moisture content of the soil
Depth of the pit
Quantity of the charcoal used

Methods of earthing:
1. Plate earthing
Copper plate of 60cm x 60cm x 3.18cm or a GI plate of
the size 60cm x 60cm x 6.35cm
The plate is placed vertically down inside the ground at
a depth of 3m .
Alternate layer of coal and salt for a thickness of 15cm.

Standard earth electrodes

Type of Electrodes
Measurement

Diameter(not less
than)

Length/ Depth of
burial (not less
than)

Rod

Pipe

16 mm (Steel or GI)

38 mm (Steel or GI)

12.5 mm (copper)

100 mm (Cast Iron)

2.5 m (ideal 3 to
3.5 m)

2.5 m

Strip

0.5 m

25 x 1.60 mm
Size

(copper)
25 x 4 (Steel or GI)

Round
conductor

1.5 m

Plate

1.5 m

3.0 Sq. mm
(copper)
6 Sq. mm (Steel or

60 x 60 cm

GI)

6.30 mm (copper)
Thickness

3.15 mm (Steel or
GI)

Design of earth electrode:

Earth resistivity,

= 2SR -m

where S = distance between successive electrode in m,

R = earth megger reading in

Permissible current density for 3 sec;

For
Copper = 118 A/mm2
Aluminium = 73 A/mm2
Steel (GI) = 46 A/mm2
Current density permissible at an earth electrode,
7.75 x 10 -3
Id
A/m 2
t
where, t = duration of fault current (3 sec)

For plate electrode, electrode resistance:

R =
4

where, A= area of both sides of plate in m2

Pipe Earthing
GI pipe of 38mm in diameter and length of 2.5m

(depending on the current).

12mm holes, placed upright at a depth of 3.75m
area (15 cms) surrounding the GI pipe is filled
with a mixture of salt and coal.
GI earth wires of sufficient cross- sectional area
are run through a 12.7mm diameter pipe (at
60cms below) from the 19mm diameter pipe.

For pipe or rod electrode, resistance is

R=

100
4l
log
e
2l
d

where, d= dia of rod and l = length of rod/ pipe in cm

For strip or round conductor

100
2l 2
R=
log
e
2l
wt
where, w= depth of burial of strip electrode in cm
and
t = width of strip or twice the dia of circular
conductor in cm.

Specification:
The earth rod shall be situated at a distance not

less than
1.5 m from the building.
The size of the continuity conductor shall be 2.9
mm2
(14 SWG) or half of the installation conductor
size.
The permissible value of earth resistance
Large Power Station
Major Power Station
Small Substation
In all other cases

2
Earth continuity resistance
conductor)

0.5
1
5
1

(between earth plate and any earth

Fault Level Calculations

pu impedance =

z () x Base MVA
Base kV 2

Inductance of line for eqvt. spacing = (2 log e

d
+ 0.5) x 10-7 H/m
r

where d = spacing between conductors and r = radius of

conductor

line impedance () x Base MVA

x 100

2
Base kV

% line impedance =

% impedance at new Base MVA =

% impedance old x Base MVA new

BaseMVA old

Short circuit MVA (power fed into the fault) =

System % impedance =

Base MVA
x 100
Total % impedance up to the point

Base MVA
x 100
Short Circuit MVA

Earth wire:
Minimum permissible size determined by
mechanical consideration.
All earth wire and earth continuity conductors
should be of copper, galvanized iron /steel or
aluminium.
The neutral conductor should not be used as
earth wire, ref. IS: 3043-1966.
Earthing of domestic fitting and appliances

have got high importance.

Domestic Electric Installations and

Estimates
General rules for wiring:
Estimator is fully aware about the general rules

followed for internal wiring conform with the

Indian Electricity Act
The worker shall be under the supervision of
certificate holder.
Every installation must be properly protected
near the point of entry of supply cable by a
main and fuse.
No fuse, switch, or circuit breaker is to be used
in earth wire.
Selected conductor must carry full load current
safely.

 The conductors installed are to be safe in all respects.

Every sub-circuit is to be connected to a distribution

board.
Every line is to be protected by a fuse of suitable
rating as per requirements.
Switch board must be 1.3 meters above the floor level.
All plug and socket outlets are of 3- pin type.
Adequate no. of sockets are to be provided in all rooms
Only 3-pin, 5A socket outlets are to be used in all light
and fan sub circuits.
Only 3-pin, 15A socket outlets are to be used in all
power sub circuits.
Never install a plug higher than 15A rating.
A plug socket of rating higher than 15A , use DP switch.

 Sockets shall above 20cm or 1.3 m above floor level.

No socket outlets is to be provided in the bath room

at a height less than 1.3m.

One or two 3-pin 15A sockets can be in kitchen (if)
Lamps are to be hung 2.5m above floor level. IS:

4648-1968
Ceiling fans are to be hung 2.75. above floor level.
All socket outlets in a room are connected to one

phase.
At least two lighting sub-circuits in each house.
Separate lighting circuits be utilized for all external

 A load more than 1 kW, shall be controlled by

an isolator switch or MCB

Energy meters shall be installed at a height
where it is convenient to note the meter
reading
But not be installed at a height less than 1 m
from the ground

Steps to be carried out for estimation:

Wiring layout
Calculation of total connected load
Selection of Main Switch

DPIC or DPMCB
TPIC or TPMCB
TPN or TPNMCB or TPNMCCB

 Main distribution board

Assumptions
Calculation of length of conduit
Calculation of length of phase and neutral wire
Calculation of length of earth wire
Preparation of material table

General electrical appliances

Item

Recommended Rating

Incandescent lamps

60 W

Ceiling Fan and Table Fan

60 W

5 A, 3 pin socket outlet

100 W

Fluorescent Tube

Power socket outlet (15 A)

1000 W

For Geyser

2000 W

For AC

3000 W

Number of socket outlets

Number of socket outlets
Description
5A

15 A

Bed room

2 to 3

Living room

2 to 3

Kitchen

Dining room

Garage

For refrigerator

For air conditioner

Verandah

1 per 10 m2

Bathroom

Recommended levels of
illumination
Location

Illumination Level

Entrance Hallways

100

Living room

300

Dining room

150

Bed room:
General

300

Dress table, bed heads

200

Games or recreation room

100

Table games

300

Kitchen

200

Kitchen sink

300

Laundry

200

room

100

room mirror

300

Sewing

700

workshop

200

stairs

100

Garage

70

Study

300

Current rating (copper single core

cable)
Size of conductors

Two cables dc or Single phase ac

Approx. length

Three or four cables balanced

three phase ac

No. and dia. of

Current rating

(mm2)

wire (mm)

(A)

1/1.12

4.9

5.8

1.5

3/0.737

10

10

3.7

2.5

3/1.06

15

3.4

13

4.3

7/.737

20

3.7

15

5.8

7/1.06

28

4.0

25

5.2

7/1.12

36

4.9

32

6.1

10

7/1.40

43

5.5

39

7.0

15

7/1.63

52

48

8.8

20

19/1.12

62

7.6

56

9.8

25

19/1.4

74

8.8

67

11.3

25

19/1.63

97

10

88

12.8

50

19/1.8

160

19.4

155

13.4

of run for one

volt drop (m)

Current rating

Approx. length

Normal area

(A)

of cable/ volt
drop (m)

Selection, rating and installation of equipments on

the main switch board
Calculate total load and load current in the circuit
Calculate load currents in each sub-circuit.
Considering future requirements, an iron clad main

switch or MCB is suggested.

Example:A residential wiring has total of 2980 W. one 15A
socket, 11 light points, 7 fan points, 9 plug points of
5A. Draw the single line diagram showing cutout,
meter, main switch, main distribution board and other
equipments. Make your own assumptions for number
of electrical points in each sub-circuit and find out the
rating of main switch and distribution board.

Answer:
Total connected load: 2860W
Decide Number of points in each room and

required number of sub-circuits.

Assumption if any
sub-circuit No.1

Light point
Fan point
5 A socket
Total connected

= 3 x 60 = 180 W
= 2 x 60 = 120 W
= 3 x 100 = 300 W
load = 600 W

Load in sub-circuit No. 2

Light point
= 5 x 60 = 300 W
Fan point
= 2 x 60 = 120 W
5 A plug socket = 3 x 100 = 300 W
Total connected load = 720 W
Load in sub-circuit No. 3
Light point
= 3 x 60 = 180 W
Fan point
= 3 x 60 = 180 W
5 A socket
= 3 x 100 = 300 W
Total connected load = 660 W

Load in sub-circuit No. 4

15 A socket outlet at 1000 W

Total connected load on all sub-circuits = 600

+ 720 +

660 + 1000

Total load in Amp = 2980 / 230

A

= 2980 W
= 12.956

Total current coming in DB is 12.956 and

considering future expansion select 30A,
250V DPIC or 32A, 250V DPMCB

Q. Draw the wiring layout and estimate the

quantity of materials required. Assume the
height of ceiling as 3.6 m and one plug point
is to be provided in each room.

Soln: Wiring layout

8
9
8
3

Assumption:
a) Height of MB from the floor = 1.5 m
b) Height of HR from the floor = 3 m
c) Height of SB from the floor = 1.5 m
d) Thickness of wall = 0.25 m
e) Height of bracket from floor = 2.4 m
2. Calculation of total connected load
Light points = 5 x 60 = 300 W
Fan points = 2 x 60 = 120 W
5 A socket = 2 x 100 = 200 W
Total connected load = 620 W
Full load current = 620 / 230 = 2.69 A

only 9 points, hence no distribution board is

required
use DPIC main switch of 15 A, 250 V grade.

Selection of wire:
use 1.5 sq.mm copper wire for sub-circuit
wiring
use 1 sq.mm copper wire for light/fan/5A
socket wiring.
CALCULATION OF MATERIALS
PVC Conduit
Wiring Cable of desired size
Neutral wire
Earth wire
Earth pipes

Calculation of length of 25 mm dia. conduit pipe:

From MB to HR = 1.5 m
From SB1 to HR = 1.5 m
From SB2 to HR = 1.5 m
From HR to L1, L2 & F1 = 0.6 + 2.4 + 2.4 + 1.2
+ 2.4 + 1.2 = 10.2 m
From MB to SB1(HR) = 2 m
From HR to SB 2= 1.5 + 0.25 = 1.75 m
From HR to L4, L5, F2 & L3 = 0.6+ 0.6 + 1.35 +
1.35 + 0.6 +0.25 = 4.75 m
From HR between Sb2 and L4 = 1.8 m
Total = 25 m
10% wastage = 2.5 m
= 27.5 m say 28 m

7
8

Calculation of PVC insulated copper wire:

a) Circuit wire (1.5 Sq. mm)
From MB to SB1 = (1.5 + 2 + 1.5) x 2 = 10
m
From MB to SB2 = (1.5 + 2 + 1.5 +0.25) x 2
= 10.5 m
Total
= 20.5 m
Wastage 15% = 3.075m
= 23.575 m
Say 24 m

Light/ fan/ 5 A socket points wire (1 Sq. mm)

Phase wire:
From SB1 to F1, L1 & L2= (1.5 + 0.6 +2.4) x 3 +
(2.4 +0.6)x 2
= 19.5 m
From SB2 to F2, L3, L4 & L5 = (1.5 +1.8) x 4 +
0.6 + 0.25 + (1.35 +0.6) x 2 +(1.35 +0.6) =
19.675 m
Total
= 39.175 m

7
8

Neutral wire:
From SB1 to F1, L1 & L2 = 1.5 + 0.6 +2.4 +
(2.4 +0.6)x 2
= 8.1 m
From SB2 to F2, L3, L4 & L5 = 1.5 +1.8 + 0.6
+ 0.25 +
1.2
+1.35+1.35+0.6
= 8.65 m
Total = 16.75 m
Total 1 Sq. mm wire = 16.75 + 15 % wastage =
19.2625
Say, 20 m

Earth wire (14 SWG)

From MB to SB1 = (1.5 + 2 + 1.5) = 5 m
From MB to SB2 = (1.5 + 2 + 1.5 +0.25)=
5.25 m
Total
= 10.25 m
Total 14 SWG bare cu wire + Wastage
15%= 11.78m
say, 12 m

Material Table:
Sl No.
1
2
3
4

Description
15 A, 250 V,DPIC switch
25 mm PVC conduit
PVC bend, Tee
Saddle clips

Quantity
1 No.
28 m
15 Nos
75 Nos

1 Sq. mm ,PVC insulated copper wire

20 m

1.5 Sq. mm ,PVC insulated copper wire

24 m

7
8
9
10

5 A piano switch
Ceiling rose
Angle bracket
5 A, socket

9 Nos
2 Nos
5 nos
2 Nos

11

Teak wood box, 25 x 20 cm for SB1 & SB2

2 Nos

12

Teak wood box, 25 x 15 cm

1 No

13

Teak wood Batten 7 x 7 cm

5 Nos

14
15
16

Wooden screws
14 SWG bare cu wire
Earthing set(pipe earth)

17

Cement, sand etc.

300 nos
12 m
1 Set

Power distribution in an
industry
The power distribution in an industry has

different levels
MSB level
SSB level
DB level
Light loads are connected to DB
Heavy loads connected to SSB or MSB

DB / DFB (Distribution Fuse Board) / FDB

(Fuse Distribution Board)
Even number of ways are used in DBs
As per IS, max. number of ways is limited to 12

Example: 12 way 3phase DB has 12x3 +1 = 37 cable

connection
Usual current rating of DB s are : 16A, 32A and
63A
63A, 12 way DB is not common.
Here max. input current in 12 way is 756A.
Which is not possible to handle by DB.
Hence 63A DB is 2 or 4 ways.
Motor loads up to 20hp are fed from DB

All DBs have isolator or SFU as incomer switch.

But in some cases this is avoided if the main

switch board supplying the DB is within 3m from

the DB
20% spare outlets are kept for future expansion.

Selection and rating of incomer isolator/SFU

and incomer feeder size
The connected loads will not put on simultaneously.
Hence max. load demand reduces.
Then max. demand is expressed through Diversity

factor
Sum of connected load
Simultaneous max.demand(MD)
>1 are assumed for spare
Average of other outlets
Diversity Factor (DF) =

outlets.
Commonly accepted and safe value of DF is 1.5.
Isolator/SFU is selected based on starting

current.

Which takes into account the followings:

Time profiles of electrical loads
Coincidence of electrical loads
Mechanical loading of electric motors
Seasonal changes in loading (particularly

heating, lighting and cooling)

Any special requirements for the particular
installation

Example:5 hp - 5Nos and 10 hp - 2Nos motors are connected to a

DB
Total connected load = 45hp
MD =

45
30
1.5

Hp
Calculate corresponding maximum load current.
This is the expected continuous maximum current.
Consider Starting inrush current of large motor in the

down stream.
Consider the method of starting, DOL or Assisted
starting.
Starting current for DOL is 2.5 times
Assisted starting 1.5 times

MD calculation:
One 10 hp (one higher rating) kept aside.
Now only MD of 10 hp is existing.
Calculate its maximum current,
considering method of starting.
For one 10 hp alone, maximum current =
2.5 times of its rated current, assuming
DOL start.
Therefore MD of the DB = sum of the
above current.
ie, incoming feeder, isolator/SFU of the DB
can be rated to above the calculated value.

Grading or Discrimination between

Feeder Fuse and DB Fuse:
Supply to DB is

from SSB/MSB
Through feeder.
Feeder is protected
by HRC fuse
For better grading of
Main fuse and minor
Fuse, keep ratio as 2:1

Feeder cable must be 20% excess of MD of DB

Major fuse rating should match with cable

selection.
Voltage drop should take into account for Cable
length above 75 to 100mtr
Max drop should be less than 3% in MD
condition.

Example:
50 hp, 415 V, 3 ph Induction motor use AYFY

150 m cable.
IL = (50 x 735.5)/(3 x 415 x 0.8 x 0.85) = 76
A
50 Sq. mm, 4 core cable is selected
Its voltage drop/Amp/mtr = 1.3 mV
% volage drop = (1.3 x 10-3 x 76 x 150 x100)/415
= 3.57 % - exceeds the limit
Next higher size cable is 70 Sq. mm
Its voltage drop/Amp/mtr = 0.93 mV
% volage drop = (0.93 x 10-3 x 76 x 150
x100)/415
= 2.55 % - within limit

Design of incomer SFU, Cable size

and Bus bar rating for SSBs and MSBs
Switch boards in general are power distribution centers

with SFUs/MCCBs/ACBs/OCBs for controlling outlets and

incomer.
switch boards are specified by its total current carrying

capacity or incomer current rating.

Outlet current rating is the DBs rating.
Standard SB rating: 100 A, 200 A, 400 A, 800 A, 1200 A,

1600 A, 2000 A, 2500 A and 3200 A.

Incomer controlled with an SFU, called switch fuse

controlled board. Other is breaker controlled board.

A switch board having three sections

Outlet control gears
Bus chamber
Incomer control gear
SSB is used if load is more
For smaller loads
MSB is sufficient.

Finding Bus bar size:

Bus

bar materials:
Aluminum or Aluminium alloy working current
density, 0.8 A/ Sq.mm
Copper working current density, 1.2 A/ Sq.mm
250A/0.8 = 312.5 Sq. mm
For neutral bus bar, half the size of phase bus
bar size is sufficient.
ie, 40 x 8 mm or 50 x 6 mm Al bus bar may be
used for phases and 20 x 8 mm or 25 x 6 mm
for neutral.
Or 31 x 6 mm Cu bus bar may be used for phases and 31
x 3 mm for neutral.
small switch boards the distance between the bus
supports will be 50 cms.

If DF is not given, assume, DF as 2 for all

switch boards.
Standard switch ratings are: 32A, 63A,
100A, 200A, 250A, 400A, 630A AND 800A.

Electrical installation for small

industries:
Every motor/large load must be controlled by

a main switch and starter.

Size of SFU and starter will depend upon the
rating of the motor.
large capacity motors, three phase
underground cables are used.
The current rating of cables for motor supply
may be based upon the normal full load
current, but the rating of the fuse should be
based upon the starting current.

The sequence to be followed:

Motor current
Decide cable size
Decide size of conduit
Decide fuse rating
Decide starter, DB and Main switch
Deciding the cable size:
Current carrying capacity not less than
150% of the motor full load current rating.

\dc motors:
Current required by a 400v 15hp dc motor at 80%

efficiency is

= Rated hp x 735.5/(V* efficiency)

= 15 x 735.5/(400 x 0.8) =33.2A
Cable should be 1.5 times the full load current

= 33.2 x 1.5 = 49.8A

Select a cable of 7/1.63 mm copper conductor
capacity 53A

\single ac motor:
5hp motor working at 240V at 75% efficiency and

0.8 power factor

Rated hp x 735.5/ (efficiency x V * pf)

5 x 735.5/(0.75x 240x 0.8) = 25.5A.

Select a cable with 1.5x25.5 = 38.23A, ie

7/1.4mm (10mm2) copper conductor with 43A
capacity.
\three phase motor:
Motor of 3 phase 415v 10 hp at 85% efficiency and 0.8 pf
10x 735.5/(3xVLxpfx efficiency) =Ta15A
ble

Capacity of cable = 15x1.5 = 22.5A

Selected cable is 7/1.06 mm copper cable of 28A

Determination of conduit size:

Required size of conduit depends on three
factors:
The number of cable to be installed
Cross sectional area of cable
Permissible conduit fill

Fuse rating:
It may carry the starting current safely.
Starting current = 1.5 x load current

Ta
ble

Deciding the starter, DB and main

switch
Different types of motors have different types of starting

Serial No

Types motor

Method of starting

IM of very small rating

DOL

IM of medium rating upto

15hp

Star-delta

IM of high rating

Auto transformer

Slip ring IM

Rotor resistance

DC series

2 point 3 point

DC shunt/ compound
motor

3 point

Example:
A small work shop has following motors. Prepare
wiring scheme for, One 5hp, 400v 3 phase, One 3hp,
400v 3 phase,
One 1/2hp, 230v 1 phase, One 1hp, 400v 3 phase.
Fix the positions of the motor on the floor, or make

floor plan, and Draw the wiring diagram for electrical

connections starting from MS. Determine the
quantity of material required and cost of the same
for the power distribution arrangement. For
illuminating the workshop area 32 bulbs are
proposed to be used. Sketch the proposed
arrangement of lamps. Draw the wiring diagram.
Assume 85% efficiency and 0.8 pf

Steps:
Motor circuit:
Floor plan
Motor current
Cable size for each motor and main supply
Size of conduit for each motor and length of conduit
Rating of fuse unit
Length of cable
Length of earth wire required
Decide starter, DB and Main switch
Labour cost
For lighting circuit:
Decide number of sub circuits
Size of cable and length
Conduit size and length
Rating of fuses
Rating DB and Main switch
labour cost

Motor installation:
Main supply:
Fix the cable rating required as follows for all
machines
Line current of each 3 phase motor =
Line current of each single phase motor=
Total full load current of all motors = 15.75A (say)
Cable rating 1.5 x 15.75 = 23.6 A
Select 7/1.06mm copper cable of rating 28A.
The size of conduit, from meter board to MB shall be

25.4 mm having capacity to accommodate 3 runs of

7/1.06mm.
Current rating of main switch is the starting current of
one motor of highest rating plus full load current of
remaining motors, ie = (7.5x1.5+4.5+2.25+1.5) = 19.5,
So 30A,500V grade (Al) TPIC switch shall be used.

Starting current of highest rated motor is

11.25A.
Number of circuits = 4
So 4 way 500v 15 A per way, IC DB with neutral

link
The MS and MDB are assumed to be mounted at
a height f 1.5m above the ground level.
Find

size of cable for each motor

Find size of conduit for each motor
Rating of switch fuse
Length of conduit required
Length of wire required
Length of earth wire required
Labour cost

Lighting distribution:
No. of sub circuits
Size of cable
Size of conduit
Rating of SFU and DB
Length of wire
Length of conduit
Labour cost

Number of lamps proposed

= 32
Assume lamps be 100watts mounted at equal

intervals.
Number of lamps along length
Number of lamps along width

=8
=4

Number of sub-circuits = 4 with 8 points.

EARTH BUS, BUSBAR AND CHAMBERS

EARTH BUS:
All earthing conductors shall be of high
conductivity G.I./ Aluminum/copper and shall
be protected against mechanical injury or
corrosion.
Main earthing conductors shall be taken

from the earth connections at the main

switchboards to an earth electrode.
Sub earthing conductors runs from MSB to
Sub DB.

A good earthing system is required for:

Protection of buildings and installations
against lightning
Safety of human and animal life by
limiting touch and step voltages to safe
values
Electromagnetic compatibility (EMC) i.e.
limitation of electromagnetic disturbances
Correct operation of the electricity supply
network and to ensure good power
quality.

The electrical properties of earthing depend

essentially on two parameters:

earthing resistance
configuration of the earth electrode.
The potential of the earth grid Vgrid can be
calculated using Ohm's Law if the fault
current (If) and resistance of the grid (Zgrid)
are known.
Vgrid = If * Zgrid
The potential at a distance is
the analysis of a driven rod
electrode in homogeneous
Earth. Then Voltage Profile is

Measurement Method
Average earth resistivity at the site:
The resistivity of soil varies from site to
site and with depth of the soil and
horizontal distance.
For correct earth resistivity, it is desirable
to get information about horizontal and
vertical variation of resistivity at the site
under consideration.
The vertical variations may be detected by

repeating the measurements at a given

location in a chosen direction with different
electrode spacing.
The spacing's may be increased in steps of 2,

The horizontal variations in measurements in

various directions from the centre of the station

is noted.
If the variation in the earth resistivity readings
for different electrode spacings in a direction is
within 20 to 30 percent, the soil is considered to
be uniform.
When the spacing is increased gradually from
low values, a stage will be reached at which the
resistivity readings become more or less
constant irrespective of the increase in the
electrode spacing.

The resistivity for at least eight equally

spaced directions from the centre of the site

are measured.
These resistivity's are plotted on a graph
sheet and a closed curve is plotted on the
graph sheet joining the resistivity points to get
a polar resistivity curve.
The radius of the equivalent circle is the
average earth resistivity of the site under
consideration. The value will be reasonably
accurate when the soil is homogeneous.

The fault current from a distribution or

transmission system can usually be

estimated with precision,
But the calculation of the earth grid
resistance is more complicated.
Difficulties arise from the extended and
irregular shape of practical ground grids,
and the varying resistivity of soil at
different depths.
At points outside the earth grid, the
potential rise decreases.
The simplest case of the potential at a
distance is the analysis of a driven rod
electrode in homogeneous earth.

FORMULAE FOR CALCULATION OF EARTH RESISTANCES

Properties of earthing at high impulse currents

Differences between steady-state and pulsed

properties of an earthing system are caused
mainly by:
flow of currents with very high values, up
to a few hundreds of kA.
Very fast current rise times - typical
lightning strikes reach a few hundred
kA/s

Maximal length lmax of lightning earth electrode

as a function of resistivity

BUSBAR and BUSBAR CHAMBER:

An electrical conductor, maintained at a specific

voltage and capable of carrying a high current,

usually used to make a common connection
between several circuits in a system.

 Bus bar chamber consists of bus bars of copper

or aluminium strips.
Incoming lines are connected here through SFU.
Chamber size depends on 1) size and number of
strips used 2) number and rating of switches to be
mounted on it.

SFU

Switch Fuse Unit

(H.R.C.TYPE)
Switch Fuse Unit S.P.N. & D.P.

Rewwirable / HRC TYPE As Pers IS : 13947

Switch Fuse Unit

(Star Series-K-Type)

Substations
Classification based on design:
Outdoor type
Pole

mounted (single stout pole/ H-type/ 4pole structure employed for transformers of
25 kVA, 100 kVA and above 100 kVA)
Foundation mounted (For transformers above
250 kVA and voltage of 33 kV and above)
Indoor type (In this the substation apparatus
are installed within the building)

Outdoor substation:
When transformers are installed out door, certain

clearances must be maintained.

Clearance between suppliers and consumers structure

should not be less than 3 meters. This is for maintaining the

minimum sectional clearance of 206 m at 11 kV.
Suppliers and consumers structure shall be braced

together when the clearance between them is 5 m or less.

The ground clearance of the live parts of CTPT unit shall not

be less than 3.7 m.

Phase to phase clearance at the AB switch shall be 915 mm

Phase to earth clearance at the AB switch shall be

610 mm. It is the clearance between the operating

rode of the AB switch and the jumpers of 11 kV down
conductors
The supported length of 11 kV jumpers shall be
limited to 1.5 m for standard conductors and 2.44 m
for solid conductors (No. 2 or No. 0 SWG copper).
Where there is a cable end box with open
terminations, the clearance of the live pars to ground
shall not be less than 305 m
The ground clearance of ht parts, usually 11 kV at
the transformer bushings shall not be less than 2.75
m.
The ground clearance of AB switch handle shall be
between 1 and 1.2 m

Indoor Substation:
11 kV/415 V are quite frequently installed at

industrial areas and other load areas like

multistoried buildings, telephone exchange,
Hospitals etc.
Indoor station building is for installing
transformer, HT, LT panel, switchgears, cables
etc.
Room size should be sufficient, for adequate
clearance between wall and various equipments.
Suitable ventilation for entry of fresh air at the
bottom of transformer room and exit of hot air at
top on opposite sides are necessary.

The installation of transformer such that the

cable boxes are on the sides and not facing the

door.
The OH line terminates on a DP structure outside
the indoor substation.
The supply from OH line is brought inside the
station through an under ground cable.
The position of CB is determined by the route
through which the line enters the building.
All protection accessories such as AB switch, LA,
GO switch and DO fuse are installed in the DP
structure.
The indoor station transformer shall have cable
boxes at HT and LT ends.

The secondary terminal of transformer is to be

connected to an LT CB or SFU using 31/2 Cable

and then to LT Bus bar through an OCB/SFU.
Current up to 300A, SFU are used, above this
OCB.
CT PT unit is installed for connecting metering
device.
Supply to HT side of transformer is brought
through UG cable.
Both sides of the transformer are protected by
suitable capacity CB.
Adequate fire extinguishing equipment shall be
provided at easily accessible positions.
Danger notice board should be provided on the
HV and MV equipments.

11KV, 200A DO FUSE SET

11 K.V. GO Switch
Horn Gap Type Fuse Rated Current:
100/75/200A

Station must be provided with HT and LT

metering , Safety requirements, earthing and

any others for security.

For the erection of the transformer and allied

accessories, PCC poles or Rolled steel joints of

11m length can be selected.
On double pole structure, LA, HG fuse unit, GO
switch, and disc insulators are installed along
with transformer.
2 sets of stays and 3 sets of earthing are to be
used.
The secondary current of 63KVA is
63KVA/(sqrt 3*415) = 88A
Choose a cable of 3-1/2 core 95 sq.mm PVC LT
cable.
It should run from the transformer to DB.
From DB, different feeder cables are to be

Example:
An outdoor pole mounted 11kV/415 V substation
has to be installed for supply to a residential area
having a load of 63A. Estimate the quantity of
materials required.

DESIGN OF ILLUMINATION and

SCHEMES
Types of Light Sources:
The performance of any light fixture depends
verymuch on the light source (bulb) used.
Different bulbs produce different lighting
effects, and many bulbs have widely varying
performance.
To save energy, select the most efficient light
bulb that will provide the type of lighting you
need.
Beginning in mid-2011, the packaging on your
favorite light bulbs was changed to lumens,
rather than a measurement of watts.

 The U.S. Federal Trade Commission is requiring

manufacturers to use new labeling on

consumer packaging by mid-2011 to help
consumers to choose the most efficient bulbs
for their needs.
The back of each package will have a Lighting
Facts label, which will provide information
about:
* Brightness
* Energy cost
* Life expectancy
* Light appearance
(for example, warm or cool)
* Wattage
* Mercury content

Artificial lights
Argand lamp: The Argand lamp is home lighting oil lamp producing
a light output of 6 to 10 candlepower which was invented and patentedin
1780 by Aim Argand.

Argon flash:

Argon flash, also known as argon bomb, argon flash bomb,

argon candle, and argon light source, is a single-use source of very short and
extremely bright flashes of light. The light is generated by a shock wave in argon
or, less commonly, other noble gas.

Acetylene/Carbide lamps: Carbide lamps, or acetylene gas

lamps, are simple lamps that produce and burn acetylene (C2H2) which is
created by the reaction of calcium carbide (CaC2) with water

Betty lamp:

These lamps burned fish oil or fat trimmings and had wicks of

twisted cloth.

Butter lamp: The lamps traditionally burn clarified yak butter, but
now often use vegetable oil or vanaspati ghee.

Candles:
Flash powder
Gas lighting: Gas lighting is production of artificial light from
combustion of a gaseous fuel.

 Gas mantle:

The mantle is a roughly pear-shaped ramie-based

artificial silk or rayon fabric bag made from silk or fabric impregnated
with rare-earth metallic salts that will convert to solid oxides after
being burned (heated).

Kerosene lamps
Lanterns
Limelights
Oil lamps
Rushlights
Safety lamps
Davy lamps
Geordie lamps

Torches

High-intensity discharge lamps:

Carbon arc lamps
Ceramic discharge metal halide lamps
Hydrargyrum medium-arc iodide lamps
Mercury-vapor lamps
Metal halide lamps
Sodium vapor lamps
Sulfur lamp
Xenon arc lamps

Incandescent lamps:
Carbon button lamp
Conventional incandescent light bulbs
Flashlight
Halogen lamps
Globar
Nernst lamp: >

Gas discharge lamps:

Fluorescent lamps
Compact fluorescent lamps
Black light

Induction lighting
Hollow cathode lamp
Neon and argon lamps
Plasma lamps
Xenon flash lamps

DESIGN OF ILLUMINATION and

SCHEMES

PRACTICAL LIGHTING SCHEMES:

There are five types of reflectors which
correspond to the five types of lighting areas:
direct, semi-direct, general diffused, semi-

indirect, and indirect.

In direct lighting, the reflector allows practically
all light (90 to 100 percent) to be directed
toward the work area. This type of reflector
creates shadows, direct glare, and reflected
glare.

Direct Lighting:
Lighting provided from a source without

reflection from other surfaces.

In electrical lighting it usually describes an
installation of ceiling mounted or suspended
luminaires with mostly downward light
distribution characteristics.

Advantages:
Very energy effective lighting.
Plastic display of three dimensional objects, eg.

sculptures.
Well suited for zonal or accent lighting.
Can create a vivid environment with attractive
light and shadow patterns eg. on wall surfaces.

Disadvantages:
The ceiling is relatively dark, which can cause a

"cave like" environment.

Luminaires with wide opening angle that are
badly positioned can cause reflected glare on
computer screens.

Indirect lighting:
Lighting provided by reflection usually from

wall or ceiling surfaces.

In electrical lighting the luminaires are
suspended from the ceiling or wall mounted
and distribute light mainly upwards so it gets
reflected off the ceiling or the walls.

Advantages:
Creates a soft, un-disturbing environment suitable for

concentrated work or viewing paintings or drawings.

Reflective glare on computer monitors can be controlled
more easily.
Displays human faces advantageously for social
gatherings.
Can be installed without disturbing the ceiling surface.

Disadvantages:
It can be disturbing if the ceiling is the brightest surface

in a room.
Makes it difficult to recognize details on three
dimensional objects.
There is very little contrast in the room which can be
boring.
Not very energy effective.

Semi direct lighting:

A glass reflector directs 60 to 90% of the light

toward the work area, and 10 to 40 % toward

the sides and top of the globe. The globe is
good for stairways, corridors, and storage
areas.

Semi-indirect lighting:
Here some of the lighting

(10 to 40%) is directed to the work area, but

most of the light (60 to 90 %) goes to the upper
walls and ceilings. This fixture gives a good
overall lighting with low surface brightness and
low glare.

General diffused lighting:

Light is equally supplied in all directions.
This type of globe can be bad because of

excessive brightness and glare

SPACING AND MOUNTING HEIGHT RATIO

LIGHT DISTRIBUTION

EFFICACY OF VARIOUS LAMPS

Source

Lumens/watt

PRINCIPLES OF ILLUMINATION
Illumination is defined as the intensity of

light per unit area.

The lighting design, refers to two things:
1. The quantity of light: Refers to the
amount of illumination or luminous flux per
unit area.

2. The quality of light: Refers to the

distribution of brightness in the lighting
installation.

 And the quality of light includes several

elements such as:

1. Brightness
2. Brightness ratio or contrast
3. Glare
4. Diffuseness
5. Color
6. Aesthetics
7. Psychological reaction to color and

fixtures
8. Economics

There are four factors that affect illumination,

namely:
1. Brightness : is the light that seems to
radiate from an object being viewed. Brightness
or luminance is the luminous flux (light) emitted,
transmitted or reflected from a surface
2. Glare : is a strong, steady, dazzling light

or reflection.
3. Contrast

: is the difference in brightness

ratio between an object and its background.

The recommended brightness ratio between
an object being viewed and its background is
normally 3:1
4. Diffuseness : Refers to the control of

DESIGN CONSIDERATIONS OF A GOOD

LIGHTING SCHEME
For a good lighting scheme, we need to consider
1. The intensity of illumination required
2. The selection of the required lamp and
fittings to provide uniform light all over the
working plane.
3. Provide light of suitable colour.
4. The size of the room.
5. Avoid glare and hard shadows as far as
possible.
1. Intensity of Illumination:
Which

is different for different works .

 Selection of light should be proper, because the

body colour have property of reflecting light in

different degrees.

The degree of illumination depends upon:

The size of the object and its distance from
the observer for greater distance and
smaller objects, greater will be the
illumination required.
Contrast between the colour of object and
background.
Objects which are seen for longer duration,
require more illumination
Moving objects require more illumination
than stationary.

Sl
No.
1

Occupancy

Illumination
(Lux)

Factories and Workshops

150
300
700
1500

1.
2.
3.
4.
2

Rough work,
Medium work, eg. Machines parts, engine parts etc.
Fine works, eg. Radio works, type writer etc
Ver fine works, eg. Assembly of small things in
precision

Power Houses
1. Boiler house, turbine switchgear etc.
2. Control rooms

Office
1. Reception
2. Conference room, general rooms etc
3. Drawing offices

Schools and colleges

1. class rooms, Lecture Halls, workshops etc
2. sewing rooms art rooms
3. common rooms, stairs

Hospitals
1. waiting rooms, wards, casuality
2. dispensaries, labs, operation theatre
3. operation table

100
300

150
300
400

300
500
150

150
300
Special
lighting

Sl No.
1

Occupancy

Illumination (Lux)

Hotels and restaurants

150
300

300
150
Special
lighting

150
300
150

40
100
300

1. Reception, dining rooms, bed rooms, stairs

2. Accounts, writing desk, dressing table
2

Shops
1. General areas
2. Stock areas
3. Shop window

Houses
1. Living room, general
2. Home works area, sustained reading
3. Kitchen, bedrooms, bath rooms etc

Storage places
1. Loading and unloading
2. General stores
3. Stores of very small items

Sports ground
1. Stadium
2. Football field
3. Tennis court

300
200
400

2. SELECTION OF LUMINAIRES:
A luminaire is the apparatus which distributes,

filters or transforms the light given by a lamp.

The choice of lamps for different types of
occupancies differ.
For small premises, tubular or tungsten
filament lamps are sufficient but in large
places, high intensity sources are optimal.
The linear output of the lamps can be
modified by using suitable reflectors or
diffusers.

3. Uniformity of Illumination:
Human eyes adjust itself to the brightness

within the field of vision.

The lack of uniformity, the eyes has to adjust

more frequently and fatigue is caused to the

eye.
Best visual performance is happened, if the
range of brightness within the field of vision
not less than 3:1.
This can be possible by employing general
lighting in addition to localized lighting.
More over, the local lighting without matching
the general lighting creates psychological
feelings of loneliness and gloom.
Hence the trend is towards the localized plus
general lighting.

Trouble shooting: in tubes

Symptoms

Possible causes
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.

Low circuit voltage

Loose contact
Defective starter
Defective tube
Wrong connection

Remedies

1.

Blinking on and off

1.

Ends of a tube remains

lighted

1.

Failure of lamp to light up

1.
2.
3.
4.

1.
2.

Blackening of the end

(early life)
Normal life

Low or high voltage

Mercury deposits at the ends

Adjust ballast tapping

It will evaporates as the lamp

operates

1.

Burn out electrode

Choke short circuited

Test with a new choke

1.

Dark streaks along lamp

Mercury globules

Rotate through 180degre

1.

Snaking spiraling

In sufficient heating due to either starter

opening quickly or wrong tappings made
on the ballast

Replace starter

Short circuited starter.

Defective
Defective
Defective
Defective

tube
starter
choke
and loose holders

Change ballast tapping if required.

Check all connections.
Replace starter.
Replace tube.
Check all connections.

Replace starter
Replace tube
Replace starter
Replace choke
Turn tube to 90degre

Street Lighting:
Main Objectives:
To make traffic and obstructions on the road
clearly visible in order to promote safety and
convenience.
To make street more attractive
To increase the community value of the street.
Principle employed for street lighting is different

from interior lighting.

Hence only direct lighting scheme can be
employed (b/s there is no walls, reflectors or
diffuse light).

Generally two principles:

1. The diffusion principle
2. The specular reflection principle
1. Diffusion principle: in this case lamp with
suitable reflectors are used.
The reflectors are so designed that they may
direct the light downwards and spreads uniformly.
To avoid glare the reflectors are made to have a
cut-off between 30o to 45o so that filament is not
visible.
The diffusion nature of the road surface causes
the reflection of certain portion of incident light
towards observer
Hence road surface appears to be bright to the
observer.

Definition of Terms:
Lighting Installation is defined as the whole of
the equipment provided for lighting the roadway
comprising the lamps luminaries, means of support
and electrical installations including other
auxiliaries.
Lighting System refers to an array of luminaires
having a characteristic of light distribution.
Luminaire is a housing for one or more lamps
comprising a body and any refractor, diffuser or
enclosure associated with the lamps.
Road Width is the distance between the edges
of the road curbs measured at right angles to the
length of the roadway.

 The illumination at any point on the road is

calculated by point to point or inverse square law

method.
2. Specular Reflection Principle:
In this case the reflectors are curved upwards, so

that the light is thrown on the road at a very large

angle of incidence.
Normally a motorist requires to see object about
30 meters away.
Lamp very near to object is notmuch reflected towards the
observer.
Whereas most of light from other
Lamps which are away from object
is much reflected.

The requirement of a pedestrian, who requires

to see objects in his immediate neighbourhood

is also fulfilled in this method, as light fall
directly downwards.
This method of lighting is suitable for straight
road.
This method is economical but it is suffering
from glare.

Illumination level for street lighting and

Mounting Height:
Illumination required depends upon the class of

lighting
In class A, illumination level of 120 lumens/m 2 is
required (shopping centres, road junctions etc)

An average well-lighted street will require

illumination between 2 to 5 lumens/m2.

Excellent illumination is considered when the
distance apart is not more than 8 times the
height of luminaire.
They should be spaced not more than 64
metres (normal is 50 metres with mounting
height of 8m) between posts.
Lamp post should always be fixed at the
junction of roads and avoid near trees.
Types of Lamps:
Mercury Vapour, Sodium Discharge and

presently LEDs
The most important is the low power

METHOD OF LIGHTING CALCULATION

1. Watts per square metre method:

principally a thump rule method.

It consists in making an allowance for
watts/m2 of area to be illuminated.
The area to be illuminated is taken based
on assumption of an average figure of an
overall efficiency of the system.
2. Lumens or Light Flux method: this
method is applicable to such a place as to
produce an approximate uniform
illumination over the working plane.

From the size of lamps employed and from

their efficiency, total lumens output are

determined.
The total lumens output is multiplied by the
coefficient of utilization.
If surroundings are not perfectly clean, then
depreciation or maintenance factor should be
included in the calculation lumens.
Lumens received on working plane
= [No. of lamps x wattage of each x efficiency of
each
lamp in terms of lumens/watts x (coefficeint of
utilization/depreciation factor)]

Coefficient of Utilization or utilization factor:

The ratio of lumens reaching the working plane
to the total lumens of lamp or lamps.
Higher the value of factor, more lumens will
reach the working plane for the given lumens
out of the lamp.
The factor depends upon
The mounting height of lamp - (decrease with
increase of height of lamp)
Area to be illuminated
Type of lighting - (more for direct lighting and
less for indirect lighting)
Colour of surrounding (more for light colors
and less for dark colors)

Maintenance Factor:
The illumination produced by a lighting is
appreciably less after a period of usage.
The loss is due to aging of lamps and partially
to the accumulation of dust on the lamps and
walls.
The factor is defined as the ratio of the
ultimate maintained metre candle on the
working plane to the initial metre candle.
Its value is more if the lamp fittings are
cleaned regularly ( say 0.8 and less say 0.6)
Depreciation is the inverse of maintenance
factor.
Its value is more than unity.

Point to point method: Inverse square law:

Applicable where the illumination at a point
due to one or more sources of light is
required.
This method is not much used because of its
complicated calculation
But used in special cases such as in flood
lighting, yard lighting etc.
Eg. A shop measuring 15m x 35m is illuminated
by 20 lamps of 500W each. The luminous
efficiency of each is 15lumens/watt and a
depreciation factor of 0.7. if the coefficient of
utilization is 0.5, determine the illumination on
the working plane.

Total area to be illuminated = A = 15x35

= 525 m2
Total lumens from lamps = = N x watts x
lumens/watts
= 20x500x15
= 150000 lumens
Lumens reaching the working plane
= xCUxDF = 150000x0.5x0.7
= 52500lumens
Illumination on working plane
E = lumens reaching the plane/ area to be
illuminated
= 52500/525 = 100 lux.

FACTORY LIGHTING
Adequate lighting is necessary to improve the

amenities to the employees.

Which increases the production and has a
definite economic value in reducing accidents.
General requirements and type of Installations:
A factory should be provided with sufficient
light on work plane.
Employ simple and cleaned fittings and avoid
glare.
Not only the direct glare but also reflected
glare from polished surface.

General lighting:
Usual scheme in factories and work shops

is to mount a number of lamps at a

sufficient height.
Which ensures uniform distribution of light.
Large machine shops the height is
governed by the necessity of the light.
In addition to the main lighting, a side
lighting also can be provided on a vertical
plane.
Hence the wall should be properly painted
with white washing or light painting.

Local lighting:
Local lighting can be provided where ever required

and never be employed alone.

It can be adjustable fittings on machine or bench.
Such lamps should be mounted in deep reflectors
to avoid glare.
Portable hand lamps attached to wall plugs are
used for maintenance work and emergency
lighting.
In such lamps a voltage less than 50V suggested.
The 50v supply can be obtained from a special low
voltage distribution system running through out
the factory.

Emergency lighting:
1. for internal pilot lighting required for safe

and speedy evacuation of personnel after main

light circuit is off.
2. external pilot lighting provided with careful
shades leading to shelters for evacuation.
3. for control posts, first aid centres etc.
4. for dials and gauges in important plants
required to be watched regularly.
The circuit supplying emergency lighting should
be independently controlled.
Auxiliary supply is very mandatory.

Industrial lighting fittings:

Reflectors must be simple and easily cleaned.
Standard reflectors : - which are made to
accommodate lamps of rating 40 to 1500 watts
Expected to give adequate and uniform light
when they are mounted at a spacing about 1.5
times their working height.
Diffusing fittings: - such fittings are used where
highly polished article are dealt with.
Concentrating reflectors: - a reflector with
concentrated beam is employed in large
machine shops.
Types of lamps: - common lamps discharge type
with natural day light color.

ELEVATOR or LIFT
An elevator is a type of vertical transport
equipment that efficiently moves people or
goods between floors of a building.
Elevators are generally powered by electric
motors that either drive traction cables or
counterweight systems.
Elevators are often a legal requirement in new
multistory buildings.

A lift is essentially a platform that is either

pulled or pushed up by a mechanical means.

A modern day lift consists of a cab or car
mounted on a platform within an enclosed
space called a shaft or sometimes a
"hoistway".

General controls:
A typical modern passenger elevator will have:

Space to stand in, guardrails, seating cushion

(luxury).
Overload sensor prevents the elevator
from moving until excess load has been
removed. It may trigger a voice prompt or
buzzer alarm. This may also trigger a "full
car" indicator, indicating the car's inability to
accept more passengers until some are
unloaded.
Electric fans or air conditioning units to
enhance circulation and comfort.

 Call buttons to choose a floor. Some of these may be

key switches.
In some elevators, certain floors are inaccessible unless
one swipes a security card or enters a passcode (or
both).

A modern internal control panel

Notice the buttons labeled 1 above G.
Typical freight elevator control station

A set of doors kept locked on each floor

to prevent unintentional access into the

elevator.
The door is unlocked and opened by a
machine sitting on the roof of the car,
which also drives the doors that travel
with the car.
Door controls are provided to close
immediately or reopen the doors.
Objects in the path of the moving doors
will either be detected by sensors or
physically activate a switch that
reopens the doors.

A stop switch (not allowed under British

regulations) to halt the elevator while in

motion and often used to hold an elevator
open while freight is loaded.
An alarm button or switch, which

passengers can use to signal that they

have been trapped in the elevator.
Some elevators may have one or more of
the following:
Telephone, Hold Button and security camera.

Standby diesel generator, connected to

elevator will operate automatically in case of

power failure.
An advanced system integrated with the
elevator control panel work as an emergency
elevator landing device.
Warning!!!
In case of fire, do not ever use elevators,
rather use the stairs.
In fact, whenever the fire system is
activated, most modern elevators are
programmed to automatically to go down
immediately to ground floor, where the door will
be open automatically.

General Rules:
Rememberby following simple rules &
procedure you can always be safe.
a)Push elevator call button as per your destination.
b) If you are smoking, extinguished your cigarette
before riding elevator.
c)Watch your step in and out carefully.
d) Inside elevator, stand aside or in a positionfacing door to step out allow existing passengers to
get out.
e) Pay attention to the floor indications.
f) Pay attention to younger children while riding
with you and avoid letting them use the elevator
alone.

Rescue and Releasing of trapped passengers:

In case of power-failure, the elevator will stop
suddenly while its moving. Also if mechanical
failure happened, it will stop at destination floor,
but the door does not open.
1. Stay calm and do not panic.
2. Press door open button.
3. If the door does not open, press the next floor
button and try to open it.
4. Do not try to open the elevator door by force.
5. If the elevator door does not open at any floor,
press the emergency alarm button located inside
the elevator operating panel, report the matter
(by using inter-phone).

6. Listen to the instructions given to you by

the concern personnel (i.e. BMS operator,

security guard, rescue team or any other
trained volunteers).
7. You may be informed that the elevator is
going to move down or up manually
depending on the position of elevator.
8. When the door is open do not leave the
elevator unless directed by the rescue
personnel.

ESCALATOR:

Invented by Charles D. Seeberger, an employee

of the Otis Elevator Company.

scalator is a power-driven, continuous moving
stairway designed to transport passengers up
and down short vertical distances.
Escalators and their cousins, moving walkways,
are powered by constant speed alternating
current motors and move at approximately
1-2 ft (0.3-0.6 m) per second.
The maximum angle of inclination of an
escalator to the horizontal is 30 degrees with a
standard rise up to about 60 ft (18 m)

Components:
Top and bottom landing platforms:Two platforms house the curved sections of the

tracks, as well as the gears and motors that

drive the stairs.
The top platform contains the motor assembly
and the main drive gear, while the bottom holds
the step return idler sprockets.
The platforms contain a floor plate and a comb
plate.
The floor plate provides a place for the
passengers to stand before they step onto the
moving stairs.
The comb plate is the piece between the
stationary floor plate and the moving step.

The truss:A hollow metal structure that bridges the

lower and upper landings.

The ends of the truss are attached to the top
and bottom landing platforms via steel or
concrete supports.
The truss carries all the straight track sections
connecting the upper and lower sections.

The tracks:The track system is built into the truss to

guide the step chain, which continuously
pulls the steps.

There are two tracks: one for the front wheels

of the steps (called the step-wheel track) and

second for the back wheels of the steps
(called the trailer-wheel track).
At the top and bottom of the escalator, the
two tracks converge so that the front and
back wheels of the steps are almost in a
straight line.
This causes the stairs to lay in a flat sheet-like
arrangement, one after another, so they can
easily travel around the bend in the curved
section of track.

The steps:The steps themselves are solid, one-piece,

die-cast aluminum.

The steps are linked by a continuous metal

chain so they form a closed loop with each step

able to bend in relation to its neighbors.
The front and back edges of the steps are each
connected to two wheels.
The railing:The railing provides a convenient handhold for
passengers.
It is constructed of four distinct sections slider,
tension member, inner component and outer
layer.
The finished railing is pulled along its track by a
chain that is connected to the main drive gear
by a series of pulleys.

A typical escalator uses a 100 HP motor to

rotate the gears.

The motor and chain system are housed
inside the truss.
Step Speed:Escalator speeds vary from about 90 feet per
minute to 180 feet per minute (27 to 55
meters per minute).
An escalator moving 145 feet (44 m) per
minute can carry more than 10,000 people an
hour.

The individual steps from an escalator

ANY
QUERIES

Tube Diameter
in 18in
(3.175mm
T5
T5
T5
T5
T8
T12
T12
T12
T12
T12
T12

Nominal Length

Nominal watts

6 in, 150mm
9 in, 225mm
12 in, 300mm
21 in, 525mm
18 in, 450mm
2ft, 600mm
2ft, 600mm
4ft, 1200mm
5ft, 1500mm
6ft, 1800mm
8ft, 2400mm

4W
6W
8W
13 W
15 W
20 W
40 W
40 W
65 W, 80 W
75 W, 85 W
125 W