Unit-3

Nozzles

Isentropic flow through variable

ducts
So far we have area
been considering
compressible

flows through constant area ducts with and

without the influence of friction
and heat
transfer.
A useful engineering flow model can be
obtained by neglecting heat transfer and
friction in ducts of variable cross sectional
area which are more frequently encountered in
practice.
One also needs to ignore boundary layer
effects and assume that the variations in the
x direction (flow direction) are dominant.

Isentropic flow through variable

area ducts

Steady, one-dimensional, isentropic flow:

A flow in which the flow parameters do not

vary with time is called steady flow.
The flow is said to be one-dimensional if
the flow parameters do not vary in other
directions normal to the flow direction.
In many cases, one-dimensional steady state
flow is assumed to obtain a quick and rough
idea of the variations in flow
parameters
along the direction of flow.
The problem is further simplified at the cost of
accuracy by making the assumption of
isentropic flow. This is justified when the
heat transfer is negligible and there are no

Isentropic flow with variable area

Comparison of isentropic
and adiabatic processes:
Fig. shows isentropic
and adiabatic
expansions of an
ideal gas between
the two
states 1
and 2.
The initial stagnation
pressure is p01s and
the kinetic energy
V12/2. The stagnation
and static
temperatures are T01
and T1.

V12
2

V22s
2

V22a
2

Isentropic flow with variable area

In the adiabatic process for the same initial
state, the final state is defined by point 2a.
There is an increase in entropy ds
and the
final stagnation pressure p02a is lower than its
initial value p01s . The final kinetic energy is
also lower than its
corresponding isentropic
value.
The stagnation temperature remains the
same in both
isentropic and adiabatic
processes i.e., T01 = T02.

2
Stagnation
enthalpy
of a gas ignoring
h0 h V
2
elevation differences
is
given by:

Isentropic flow with variable area

For an adiabatic energy transformation
process, the stagnation
enthalpy remains
constant.
dh V .dVTherefore,
0
For an isentropic flow, this can be written as:

dp
V .dV 0

If the flow is incompressible, then is

constant, leading to Bernoullis equation.

This can be written as:

dp V .dV

(3.1)

From
continuity equation,

m AV Constant

Isentropic flow with variable area

Taking logs and differentiating, we get:
ln ln A ln V C
d dA dV

A V
d dA
dA
2 d
substituting in (3.1) dp V

dV V

A
A


dA
dp
d 2
1

V
2
A V
dp
For an isentropic process,
dp p

a2
s

dA
dp
V2
dp
dV
2
2

2
2
2
A V
a
V
V

Isentropic flow with variable area

This equation can now be considered for
accelerating and decelerating passages for
various values of Mach number
Expansion in Nozzles:
Purpose of the nozzle is to accelerate the
flow by giving a
pressure drop. Therefore,
dp is always negative for a nozzle.
Case (1): For M<1, dA= -ve
This shows that for nozzles the area decreases in
the range 0<M<1 giving a convergent passage.
Case (2): For M=1 (Sonic velocity), dA=0
Implies that the area is constant at the point where
M=1. This
section is referred to as the throat of
the passage.
Case (3): For M>1, dA= +ve
This shows that for M>1 the area of the nozzle
increases
continuously giving a divergent
passage.

Isentropic flow with variable area

Compression in Diffusers:
Purpose of the diffuser is to decelerate the
flow and gain pressure. Therefore, dp is
always positive for a diffuser.
Case (1): For M<1, dA= +ve
This shows that for subsonic diffusers (0<M<1) the
area increases with decreasing Mach number giving
a diverging passage.
Case (2): For M=1 (Sonic velocity), dA=0
Implies that the area is constant.
Case (3): For M>1, dA= -ve
This shows that for M>1 the area of the diffuser
decreases continuously giving a convergent
passage.

Isentropic flow with variable area

dA
dV

1 M 2
A
V
Passage shape

Subsonic flow
(M < 1)

Supersonic flow
(M > 1)

Flow

dA > 0
dV < 0

dA > 0
dV > 0

Flow

dA < 0
dV > 0

dA < 0
dV < 0

Isentropic flow with variable area

Velocity

, A V

Area

Density

M<1

1.0
Mach number

M>1

Isentropic flow with variable area

From isentropic flow relations, we have the

following expressions:

p0
1 2
1
M
p
2

0
1 2
1
M

2

T0
1 2
1
M
T
2

1
1

For a known value of M, it is straight forward to

find the ratios but if
the ratio is given then it
becomes an iterative process to find M. These
equations are therefore tabulated so that it
becomes easy to work both ways.
Since T varies along the flow, the speed of sound

Isentropic flow with variable area

The speed of sound can be defined based on
static and stagnation temperatures as
follows:
a RT and a0 RT0
Therefore,
1

a T 2
1

a0 T0
1 1 M 2

1
2

Using * to designate conditions where Mach

number M = 1, we
get the expressions for
isentropic relationships for sonic conditions.

Isentropic relationships for sonic

condition
T*
2

T0 1
p* 2

p0 1

0 1
*

a* 2

a0 1

T*
0.8333 for 1.4
T0

1
1

1
2

p*
0.5283 for 1.4
p0

*
0.6339 for 1.4
0
a*
0.9129 for 1.4
a0

Mass flow rate through variable

area
duct
The mass flow rate
at any
point
along the duct is
given
by,

m AV * A*V *

* , A* ,V *
The properties
the are
cross
sectionproperties even if
exist
The *at
states
reference
where
M does
= 1. not
the flow
have M = 1 anywhere.
If the flow is sonic in the duct, then M = 1
occurs at the minimum
area.
The flow is said to be choked at the minimum
area where M = 1.
For choked flow, reducing the downstream
pressure will not
increase the flow rate. In
other words, once the flow is choked any
increase in p across the system will not

Mass flow rate through variable

area duct

From conservation of mass, we have

m AV A V
*

A *V *
*
A
V

Since

RT
V
2
1 2

; and

M
1
V M RT
1
2

1
1

T*
2
1 2

M
1
T 1
2

The area ratio can be expressed as

A 1 2
1 2

M
1
*
A M 1
2

1
2 1

Flow through nozzles

The device used for accelerating a flow is called a nozzle
and a device used for decelerating a flow is called a
diffuser.
The largest Mach number that can occur at the minimum
area (throat
section)
is
1, and if it occurs in a flow

m
passage, then the flow is
choked.
A said to be

In a choked flow, the mass flux

at the throat section
will have a maximum
value for a given set of initial
conditions.
The phenomenon of choking can be better understood
by studying the behaviour of convergent as well as
convergent-divergent nozzles operating under varying
pressure ratios.

Convergent Nozzle:
Consider a converging nozzle attached to a reservoir
with stagnation
conditions p0 and T0 and exhausting to
a region where the back pressure pb can be controlled
by means of a valve. Let pe be the pressure at the nozzle

The convergent nozzle

To begin with, consider p0 =
pb. Since these two pressures
are
equal, no flow occurs Reservoir
and the
pressure is
constant throughout the
V=0
P
nozzle (line (i))

pb

A slight decrease in pb
induces flow and the flow
rate through the nozzle will
be such that pe=pb. There will
be continuous
decrease in
pressure as the fluid flows
through the nozzle. The flow
will be
subsonic
throughout the nozzle.
(curves (ii) and (iii)).
Finally, pb is reduced to a
value that
makes exit
plane Mach number M=1. At
this condition the nozzle is

T0
0
h0

pe

Exhaust
chamber

Convergent
nozzle

P
P
0

Not
choked
(Me<1)
pe=pb
Choked
(Me=1)
pe>pb
Distance, x

The convergent nozzle

Any further reduction in pb will have no effect on either the
mass flow rate or the
pressure distribution along the nozzle.
The Mach number can never exceed 1 at the exit plane since the
exit plane represents the minimum area corresponding to p0.
Hence pe can not be less than p*.
The shape of the jet discharging from the converging nozzle
depends on the back pressure (pb). If pb p*, the jet issues as
a cylindrical parallel stream. If pb < p*, the
jet expands as it
discharges from the nozzle.
Convergent
nozzle
p*

Convergent
nozzle
p*

pb
Reservoi
r

Reservoi
r

pb < p*
pb > p*

pb

The convergent nozzle

The flow velocity at the nozzle exit can be calculated as:

pe
2

Ve
RT0 1
1
p0

R is the gas constant for

exhaust gases = (Universal gas
constant / Molecular weight of
exhaust gases)

The Mach number at the exit of the nozzle is given by

2 p0

1 pe

Me

The mass flow rate through the nozzle is given by:

p0
RT0

2
1

pe

p0

pe

p0

The convergent-divergent nozzle

Convergent-Divergent (C-D)
nozzle is used for generating
supersonic flow. It
is also
called De Laval nozzle.
Let the C-D nozzle, fitted to a
reservoir having constant p0
and T0 exhaust into a
variable pressure region.

Reservoi
r
V=0
P0
T0
0
h0

Let At and Ae be the area at the

throat and exit of the nozzle
respectively.

Initially, when pb=p0, there will

be no flow through the nozzle
as shown by the line pb=p0.

p
*

When pb is less than p0, the

flow in the
nozzle is
represented by curves (i) to
(iii). The Mach number
increases with
pressure ratio

Convergent
divergent
nozzle
pt

pe

pb

Exhaust
chamber

pb = p0

pb =
p*b

pt =
p*

pb =
pbe

M=1
Locus
(downstream
of shock)

pb =
pbd
Normal
shock
Distance along nozzle

The convergent-divergent nozzle

The highest Mach number occurs at the throat where
the pressure is minimum. When pb reaches a particular
value, the Mach number at the throat
reaches 1. That
is , the pressure pattern in the nozzle is such that the
flow is sonic at the throat and subsonic elsewhere. The
back pressure for this condition is represented by pb*.
The gas expands isentropically up to throat where M=1
and p=p* and then diffuses isentropically to p b* at the
exit.
For any further decrease in pb*, the mass flow rate
through the nozzle will not increase because the nozzle
is choked.
The convergent-divergent nozzle chokes at a lower back
pressure pb than a
convergent nozzle operating with
the same inlet conditions since the flow has
to
overcome pressure losses in the divergent part of the
nozzle.
However, decreasing pb to a very low value results in

The convergent-divergent nozzle

The exhaust gas jet is again a cylindrical parallel jet. In
jet propulsion engines, this operating condition is
termed as the condition for optimum expansion of
the nozzle.
Reduction in back pressure below pbd has no effect on
the distribution of flow parameters within the nozzle
(curve (v)). Since the flow is supersonic in the
diverging portion, the pressure and Mach number in the
nozzle exit plane are not influenced by pb < pbd . Since
the exit plane pressure pe is greater than pb ,
flow
adjusts from pe to pb through a system of expansion
waves outside the nozzle. This operating regime of the
nozzle is called underexpansion.
When back pressure is maintained between p b* and
pbd , as shown by curves (vi) and (vii), normal shock
waves occur within or at the exit of the nozzle. For
example, looking at curve (vi), the flow from the throat
up to the normal shock will be supersonic and the flow

The convergent-divergent nozzle

A rocket nozzle

Flow

Cross section of a rocket nozzle

The convergent-divergent nozzle

Curve (viii) shows the situation when the back pressure is
between pbe and pbd . The flow is supersonic up to the nozzle
exit and at the exit oblique shock waves get attached to the
tip of the nozzle. In this range, the Mach number and the
pressure distribution are not affected by the back pressure.
The condition between pbe and pbd are referred as
overexpansion.
A
t

pe
pb
pe=pb

pe>pb
Under expanded
(Non-optimum
nozzle)

Correct
expanded
(Optimum nozzle)

pe<pb

The nozzle expansion ratio in terms of pe and

At 1

Ae 2

1
1

pe

pb

p
1

1 e
1
pb

Ae

Over
expanded
(Non-optimum
p isnozzle)
given by

Summary, convergent-divergent nozzle

Over expanded

Optimally expanded

Under expanded

Different nozzle configurations

Cone
(15 half
angle)

Contour or
Bell short
length

Contour or
Bell full
length

Plug or
aerospike full
length

Expansion Deflection

Plug or
aerospike
truncated

Shape
L

Annular
chamber

Expansion waves

Flow with
underexpansi
on at altitude
Diffused boundaries
with air

Trailin
g
waves

Recirculati
on regions

Flow with
overexpansio
n (sea level)
Jet
separation

Altitude

Mass flow
distribution at
exit or tip

Sea
level

Jets contract outside

nozzle

Diffused
boundarie
s

Recirculation
regions

Sea
level

Altitude

Wind tunnels
A wind tunnel is a tool used in aerodynamic research to
study the effects of
air moving past solid objects.
A wind tunnel consists of a tubular passage with the
object under test mounted in the middle. Air is made
to move past the object by a powerful fan system or
other means such as air stored under pressure in
vessels.
The test object, called a wind tunnel model is
instrumented with suitable sensors to measure
Test section
aerodynamic forces,
Flow fieldpressure
around a model simulatesdistribution, or other
conditions of flight
Model
aerodynamic-related characteristics.
Controlled
airstream

Motor

Test instrumentation

Schematic of an open wind tunnel

Wind tunnels
A wind tunnel can be configured in two ways:
1) An open type wind tunnel with one way air
passage, and
2) A closed or return flow wind tunnel where the air
is recirculated.

Schematic of a closed (return flow) wind tunnel

Wind tunnels
Wind tunnels can also be classified depending
upon the test section Mach number and/or
the end use.
Low speed wind tunnel
High speed wind tunnel
Supersonic wind tunnel
Hypersonic wind tunnel
Subsonic and transonic wind tunnel

Wind tunnel principle of working

Air is blown or sucked through a duct equipped with a
viewing port and instrumentation where models or
geometrical shapes are mounted for study.
Generally, the air is moved through the tunnel using a
series of fans. For very large wind tunnels several
meters in diameter, a single large fan is not practical,
and so instead an array of multiple fans are used in
parallel to provide sufficient airflow.
The airflow created by the fans that is entering the
tunnel is highly turbulent
due to the fan blade motion
and so is not directly useful for accurate measurements.
The air moving through the tunnel needs to be relatively
turbulence-free and laminar. To correct this problem,
closely spaced vertical
and horizontal air vanes are
used to smooth out the turbulent airflow before
reaching the subject of the testing.
Due to the effects of viscosity, the cross-section of a
wind tunnel is typically circular rather than square,

Wind tunnel principle of working

The inside surface of the tunnel is made as smooth as
possible, to reduce
surface drag and turbulence that
could impact the accuracy of the testing.
Even
smooth walls induce some drag into the airflow, and so
the object being
tested is usually kept near the centre
of the tunnel, with an empty buffer zone between the
object and the tunnel walls. There are correction factors
to relate wind tunnel test results to open-air results.
The lighting is usually embedded into the circular walls
of the tunnel. If the
light were mounted on the inside
surface of the tunnel in a conventional manner, the
light bulb would generate turbulence as the air flows
around it.
Similarly, observation is usually done
through transparent view ports. Rather than simply
being flat discs, these lighting and observation windows
may be curved to match the cross-section of the
tunnel and further reduce turbulence around the
window.

Wind tunnel principle of working

Typical instrumentation of a wind tunnel includes:
Pressure measurements, both within the tunnel and
on the model surfaces.
Force and moment measurements.
Flow visualization
Smoke
Tufts
Schlieren (for supersonic flows)

Smoke

Tufts

Some common flow visualization techniques

Schlieren

Subsonic wind tunnel

Air reservoir

M1
V1
p1

Test section

M2 < Mt
V2 < V t
p2 > pt

Mt < 1
Vt > V1
pt < p1

Contraction

Diffuser

For a subsonic wind tunnel the air density remains

nearly constant and decreasing the cross sectional
area causes the flow to accelerate and the pressure
to decrease,
The test section is located at the end of the
contraction section and before the diffuser. The test
section cross sectional area is sized to produce a
desired velocity or Mach number

Subsonic wind tunnel

Test section

Contraction

Diffuser

Supersonic wind tunnel

Heated Air
reservoir

M1
V1
p1

Test section
Throat

Mts > Mt > 1

Vts > Vt
pts < pt

Mt = 1

Contraction

Expander

For a supersonic wind tunnel the air density changes

in the tunnel due to compressibility. Initially, a
contraction section ensures choked flow at the throat
and thereafter an expander accelerates the flow.
The test section is located at the end of the expander
section. The test section cross sectional area is sized
to produce a desired velocity or Mach
number.
For obtaining high Mach numbers in the test section,
the air in the reservoir
may be heated to avoid very
low temperature and possible moisture condensation

Supersonic wind tunnel

Exit throat
(Subsonic)

Note:
Sonic throat in the supersonic nozzle chokes to enable
supersonic Mach number in the test section. Here, the
divergent part of the nozzle accelerates the flow.

The supersonic flow from the test section enters the

convergent part of the exit nozzle and is decelerated
to a subsonic Mach number at the throat by choosing
a suitable nozzle area ratio. Since the exit nozzle
throat is not choked, its divergent part is, therefore, a
diffuser which increases the pressure of air to leave
the wind tunnel.

Shock tube and shock tunnel

The flow across a shock wave is of non-equilibrium
nature as seen earlier. If the physical and chemical
processes occurring across a shock wave are to be
studied, shock tubes can be used which generate onedimensional, non- dissipative flows.
On the other hand, if the simulation of the conditions
of real flight is required, facilities such as shock
tunnels generating hypersonic flow around flight
objects must be used. Examples are - atmospheric
reentry systems
such as long range guided missiles
and space vehicles.
Principle of shock tube:
A shock tube consists of a tube of constant area
(circular or rectangular) within which a moving shock
wave is generated at high temperature and out of
equilibrium. Ideally, this flow is one-dimensional and
not dissipative.
Schematically, a tube is divided into two sections

Shock tube and shock tunnel

Diaphragm
High pressure
chamber

Low pressure chamber

Time t

Refraction waves

Interface
Shock wave

Pressure
Temperature

Shock tube and shock tunnel

After the diaphragm is ruptured, the driver gas acts
like a fast moving piston and enters the low pressure
chamber and generates a shock wave
which
propagates in the test gas. This shock wave gives a
high acceleration to the test gas accompanied by
increases in temperature, pressure and density.
Physical and chemical processes can then start and
proceed to their
equilibrium states.
As the rupture of the diaphragm is instantaneous, a
complex system of
expansion and compression
waves are generated preserving pressure and
velocity through the interface, whereas the
temperature and the density
undergo a
discontinuity.
Since the duration of test gas flow between the shock
wave and the interface is very short (a few hundred
microseconds), disturbances can be caused by
reflections and interactions of waves because of
limited dimensions of the shock tube which affect

Principle of shock tunnel

The principle of shock tunnel is derived from the
shock tube concept. The gas downstream of the
incident shock wave can be directly expanded in a
nozzle placed at the end of the shock tube. The flow
can then become hypersonic at the end of the
divergent part of the nozzle.
Diaphragm

At the rupture of the diaphragm, a shock wave

propagates in the nozzle compressing the residual gas
of the expanding chamber (dump tank) which is
initially at very low pressure.
Another shock wave, known as a secondary shock, is
formed downstream to ensure the continuity of

Shock tunnel