CHAPTER 5

MICROWAVE ANTENNA

MICROWAVE ANTENNA
Definition
A conductor or group of conductors used
either for radiating electromagnetic
energy into spaceor forcollectingit from
space.
or
Is a structure which may be described as
a metallic object, often a wire or a
collection of wires through specific
design capable of converting high
frequency current into EM wave and
transmit it into free space at light
velocity with high power (kW) besides
receiving EM wave from free space and
convert it into high frequency current at

Basic operation of transmit

and receive antennas
Electrical
energy from
the transmitter
is converted
into
electromagneti
c energy by
the antenna
and radiated
into space.

Figure 5.1 : Basic operation

of transmit and receive
antennas

On the
receiving
end,
electromagn
etic energy
is converted
into
electrical
energy by
the antenna
and fed into
the receiver

Basic operation of transmit

and receive antennas
(cont)

Transmission - radiates electromagnetic energy

into space
Reception - collects electromagnetic energy
from space
In two-way communication, the same antenna
can be used for transmission and reception.
Short wavelength produced by high frequency
microwave, allows the usage of highly directive
antenna. For long distant signal transmission,
the usage of antenna at microwave frequency
is more economical. Usage of waveguide is
suitable for short distant signal transmission.

FUNCTION OF ANTENNA

Transmit energy with high efficiency .

Receive energy as low as mW.
Provide matching between transmitter and free space and
between free space and receiver, thus maximum power
transfer is achieve besides preventing the occurrence of
reflection.
Directs radiation toward and suppresses radiation
Two common features exist at the antenna Tx and Rx
antenna is the radiation pattern and impedance, but it is
different in terms of transmission power and reception
power.
Figure 5.2 below, shows the energy transmitted into free
space via an open ended /4 transmission line. The
proportion of wave escaping the system is very small due

FUNCTION OF ANTENNA
(cont)

Mismatch exist that is surrounding space as load.

Since the two wires are closed together and in opposite
direction (180), therefore it is apparent that the radiation
from one tip will cancelled that from the other.
Figure 5.2 below, shows the energy transmitted into free
space via an open ended /4 transmission line. The
proportion of wave escaping the system is very small due

Figure 5.2

TYPES OF MICROWAVE
ANTENNA
A. Horn / aperture antenna
B. Parabolic / dish antenna
C. Dipole antenna
D. Slotted (leaky-wave) antenna
E. Dielectric lens antenna
F. Printed (patch or microstrip) antenna
G. Phase Array antenna

A - HORN / APERTURE
ANTENNA
Like parabolic reflectors,
HORN RADIATORS can
use to obtain directive
radiation at microwave
frequencies
Horn radiators are used
with waveguides
because they serve
both as an impedancematching device and as
a directional radiator.
Horn radiators may be
fed by coaxial and other
types of lines
Figure 5.3 : Horn antenna

Horn Antenna
Horn radiators are constructed in a variety of shapes,
as illustrated in figure 5.4
The shape of the horn determines the shape of the
field pattern. The ratio of the horn length to the size of
its mouth determines the beam angle and directivity.
In general, the larger the mouth of the horn, the more
directive is the field pattern.

Figure 5.4 : Horn radiator

DIFFERENT TYPES OF HORN

ANTENNA

THREE TYPES OF HORN

ANTENNA
Horn antenna tapered / flared in one
dimension only i.e in E-plane or Hplane (known as sectoral horn).
Horn antenna tapered / flared in two
dimension i.e in E-plane and H-plane
(known as pyramidal horn).
Conical taper / flares uniformly in all
direction i.e in circular form.

THE DIFFERENCES BETWEEN THE E-,

H-PLANE & PYRAMIDAL HORN SECTORAL
ANTENNA
E-

PLANE

HORN

SECTORAL H-

PLANE

HORN

SECTORAL

ANTENNA

ANTENNA

Radiation pattern exhibits side lobe

Radiation pattern exhibits

lobe, thus more popular.

PYRAMIDAL HORN ANTENNA

Radiation pattern flares in 2 direction
i.e in E-plane and H-plane. Therefore
improves directivity.

no side

DIMENSION OF HORN
ANTENNA

DIMENSION OF HORN
ANTENNA (cont)

B- PARABOLIC (REFLECTOR /
DISH) ANTENNA
Is a big dish like structure made from metal
or wire mesh / grid.
Mesh hole / 12.
Widely used in microwave propagation via
free space.
Also known as secondary antenna since it
depends on primary antenna which acts as
a feeder at the focal point (horn antenna or
dipole antenna) to enhance the
performance quality of the transmitter and
the receiver

Introduction of parabolic
antenna

A parabolic antenna is a
high-gain reflector antenna
used for radio, television and
data communications, and
also for radiolocation (radar),
on the UHF and SHF parts of
the electromagnetic
spectrum
With the advent of TVRO and
DBS satellite television, the
parabolic antenna became a
ubiquitous feature of urban,
suburban, and even rural
landscapes.

Figure 5.5 : Parabolic

Antenna

Why is it
used?

At higher microwave
frequencies the physical
size of the antenna
becomes much smaller
which in turn reduces the
gain and directivity of the
antenna
The desired directivity can
be achieved using suitably
shaped parabolic reflector
behind the main antenna
which is known as primary
antenna or feed .

Working rules

A parabolic reflector
follows the principle of
geometrical optics.

When parallel rays of light

incident on the reflector
they will converge at focus
or when a point source of
light is kept at focus after
reflection by the reflector
they form a parallel beam
of rays

Basic Parabolic
The basic paraboloid reflector used to produce
different beam shapes required by special
applications. The basic characteristics of the
most commonly used paraboloids are presented
as below:

TRUNCATED PARABOLOID
Since the reflector is parabolic in the horizontal plane, the
energy is focused into a narrow beam. With the reflector
TRUNCATED (cut) so that it is shortened vertically, the beam
spreads out vertically instead of being focused. This fanshaped beam is used in radar detection applications for the
accurate determination of bearing. Since the beam is spread
vertically, it will detect aircraft at different altitudes without
changing the tilt of the antenna. The truncated paraboloid
also works well for surface search radar applications to
compensate for the pitch and roll of the ship
Truncated paraboloid may be used in target height-finding
systems if the reflector is rotated 90 degrees, as shown in
figure 3-5B. Since the reflector is now parabolic in the
vertical plane, the energy is focused vertically into a narrow
beam. If the reflector is truncated, or cut, so that it is
shortened horizontally, the beam will spread out horizontally
instead of being focused. Such a fan-shaped beam is used to
accurately determine elevation

ORANGE-PEEL
PARABOLOID
A section of a complete circular paraboloid, often called an

ORANGE-PEEL REFLECTOR because of its orange-peel

shape. Since the reflector is narrow in the horizontal plane
and wide in the vertical plane, it produces a beam that is
wide in the horizontal plane and narrow in the vertical
plane. In shape, the beam resembles a huge beaver tail.
The microwave energy is sent into the parabolic reflector by
a horn radiator (not shown) which is fed by a waveguide.
The horn radiation pattern covers nearly the entire shape of
the reflector, so almost all of the microwave energy strikes
the reflector and very little escapes at the sides. Antenna
systems which use orange-peel paraboloids are often used
in height-finding equipment.

Orange-peel
paraboloid

Cylindrical
paraboloid

Corner reflector

CYLINDRICAL
PARABOLOID
When a beam of radiated energy that is noticeably wider
in one cross-sectional dimension than in another is
desired, a cylindrical paraboloidal section which
approximates a rectangle can be used. A PARABOLIC
CYLINDER has a parabolic cross section in just one
dimension which causes the reflector to be directive in
one plane only. The cylindrical paraboloid reflector is fed
either by a linear array of dipoles, a slit in the side of a
waveguide, or by a thin waveguide radiator. It also has a
series of focal points forming a straight line rather than a
single focal point. Placing the radiator, or radiators,
along this focal line produces a directed beam of energy.
As the width of the parabolic section is changed,
different beam shapes are obtained. You may see this
type of antenna system used in search radar systems
and in ground control approach (gca) radar systems.

CORNER REFLECTOR
The CORNER-REFLECTOR ANTENNA consists of
two flat conducting sheets that meet at an
angle to form a corner, as shown in figure 5.6.
The corner reflector is normally driven by a
HALF-WAVE RADIATOR located on a line which
bisects the angle formed by the sheet
reflectors.

Figure 5.6 : Parabolic reflector radiation.

CORNER REFLECTOR
A microwave source is(cont)
placed at focal point F. The field

leaves this antenna as a spherical wavefront. As each part

of the wavefront reaches the reflecting surface, it is phaseshifted 180 degrees. Each part is then sent outward at an
angle that results in all parts of the field traveling in
parallel paths. Because of the special shape of a parabolic
surface, all paths from F to the reflector and back to line XY
are the same length. Therefore, when the parts of the field
are reflected from the parabolic surface, they travel to line
XY in the same amount of time.

CORNER REFLECTOR
(cont)
A point-radiation source is placed at the focal point F. The
field leaves this antenna with a spherical wavefront.As
each part of the wavefront moving toward the reflector
reaches the reflecting surface, it is shifted 180 degrees in
phase and sent outward at angles that cause all parts of
the field to travel in parallel paths. Because of the shape of
a parabolic surface, all paths from F to the reflector and
back to line XY are the same length. Therefore, all parts of
the field arrive at line XY at the same time after reflection.
A parasitic array to direct the radiated field back to the
reflector, or a feed horn pointed at the paraboloid is used
to make the beam sharper and toconcentrates the
majority of the power in the beam.
The radiation pattern of the paraboloid contains a major
lobe, which is directed along the axis of the paraboloid and
several minor lobes.Very narrow beams are possible with
this type of reflector.

PARABOLIC RADIATION
PATTERN

Figure 5.7 : Parabolic radiation pattern

PARABOLIC (REFLECTOR /
DISH) ANTENNA as
TRANSMITTER

The wave at the focus point will be directed

to the main reflector and will be reflected
parallel to the parabola axis. Thus the wave
will travel at the same the and phase at
A`E` (XY) line and the plane wave produce
will be transmitted to the free space.
Waves are emitted from the focal point of
the wall and bounced back in line with the
axis of the parabola and will arrive on time
and with the same phase of the line and will
form the next plane waves emitted into free
space

PARABOLIC (REFLECTOR /
DISH) ANTENNA as
RECEIVER

The plane wave received which is parallel to

the parabola axis will be reflected by the
main reflector to the focus point.
All received waves parallel to the axis of the
parabola will be reflected by the wall to the
point of convergence.
This characteristic makes the parabola
antenna to possess high gain and a confined
beam width.
These features causes a parabola has a high
gain and width of the focused beam.

C- SLOTTED (LEAKY-WAVE)
ANTENNA

Can be fabricated from a length of a waveguide.

They are simple to fabricate, have low-loss (high
efficiency) and radiate linear polarization with low
cross-polarization.
Slotted antenna arrays used with waveguides are
a popular antenna in navigation, radar and other
high-frequency systems. These antennas are often
used in aircraft applications because they can be
made to conform to the surface on which they are
mounted. The slots are typically thin (< 0.1 ) and
0.5 (at the center frequency of operation).

SLOT ANTENNA
What is SLOT
Antenna:A slot antenna consists of a
metal surface, usually a flat
plate, with a hole or slot cut out.
When the plate is driven as an
antenna by a driving frequency,
the slot radiates electromagnetic
waves in similar way to a dipole
antenna. The shape and size of
the slot, as well as the driving
frequency, determine the
Figure 5.8 : Slot antenna.
radiation distribution pattern.

SLOTTED (LEAKY-WAVE)
ANTENNA (CONT)
The slots on the waveguide will assumed to have a
narrow width. Increasing the width increases the
bandwidth (recall that a fatter antenna often has an
increased bandwidth); the expense of a larger width is
a higher degree of cross-polarization. The Fractional
Bandwidth for thin slots can be as low as 3-5%; wide
slots can have a FBW on the order of 75%.
An example of a slotted waveguide array is shown in
Figure 5.9 (dimensions given by length a and width b)

Figure 5.9 : slot waveguide with dimensions given by length a and wid

SLOTTED (LEAKY-WAVE)
ANTENNA (CONT)
As in the cavity-backed slot antenna, each
slot could be independently fed with a
voltage source across the slot. This would
be very difficult to construct especially for
large arrays. The waveguide is used as the
transmission line to feed the elements.
The position, shape and orientation of the
slots will determine how (or if) they
radiate. In addition, the shape of the
waveguide and frequency of operation will
play a major role.

Slot antenna (cont)

EXAMPLE;
The dominant TE10 mode will be assumed to
exist within the waveguide. Radiation occurs
when the currents must "go around" the slots in
order to continue on their desired direction. As
an example, consider a narrow slot in the center
of the waveguide, as shown in Figure 5.10

Figure 5.10 : example slot waveguide with dimensions given by length

Slot antenna (cont)

In this case, the z-component of the current will not
be disturbed, because the slot is thin and the zcurrent would not need to travel around the slot.
Hence, the x-component of the current will be
responsible for the radiation. However, at this
location (x=a/2), the x-component of the current
density is zero - i.e. no current and therefore no
radiation. As a result, slots cannot be placed in the
center of the waveguide as shown in Figure 5.10.
If the slots are displaced from the centerline as
shown in Figure 5.9, the x-directed current will not
be zero and will need to travel around the slot.
Hence, radiation will occur.

Slot antenna (cont)

If the slot is oriented as shown in Figure 3,
the slot will disturb the z-component of the
current density. This slot will then radiate.
If this slot is displaced away from the
center line, the amount of power that it
radiates can be adjusted.

Slot antenna (cont)

If the slot is rotated at an angle about the centerline
as shown in Figure 4, it will radiate. The power it
radiates will be a function of the angle (phi) that it is
rotated - specifically given by . Note that the zcomponent of the current is still responsible for
radiation in this case. The x-component is disturbed;
however the currents will have opposite magnitudes
on either side of the centerline and will thus tend to
cancel out the radiation

Slot antenna (cont)

The most common slotted waveguide
resembles that shown in Figure 5:

The front end (the open face at the y=0 in the x-z
plane) is where the antenna is fed. The far end is
usually shorted (enclosed in metal). The waveguide
may be excited by a short dipole (as seen on the
cavity-backed slot antenna) page, or by another
waveguide

Slot antenna (cont)

The waveguide itself acts as a
transmission line, and the slots in the
waveguide can be viewed as parallel
(shunt) admittances.

Slot antenna (cont)

Slot antenna (cont)

Slot antenna (cont)

The end of the waveguide is terminated in a pyramid terminator to

avoid line reflections.
The radiating field pattern depends on the spacing of the slots (phase
relationship) and their orientation with reference to the waveguide.
A slot cut in the wall of the waveguide, transverse to the direction of
the interior boundary currents ( due to the interior em wave) will
couple the em energy from inside the wave guide to a radiant freespace wave.
The length of slot is cut to be a resonant one-half (/2) wavelength.

D) DIPOLE ANTENNAS
TWO TYPES OF DIPOLE ANTENNAS:
Half-wave (/2) dipole antenna (or Hertz
antenna)
Quarter-wave ( /4) vertical antenna (or
Marconi antenna)
Maxwell equations, the strength of the
radiated field is ;

= 60 dl I cos cos w ( t r/Vc)

r

D) DIPOLE ANTENNAS
Cont.

A for a free space short-dipole and the radiation

pattern (polar diagram) in the vertical plane and
a circular in a horizontal plane.
The electric field, is directional in the vertical
plane but is omnidirectional on the horizontal
plane.

D) DIPOLE ANTENNAS
Cont.

Dipole antenna consists of 2 wires (/4

for its length) , the two wires are
separated by a gap and their
terminals are connected to the
transmitter or the receiver.
This type of dipoles is called half
wave
length dipole as the total length is
/2

D) DIPOLE ANTENNAS
Cont.

Dipole geometry
configuration

Dipole

D) DIPOLE ANTENNAS
Cont.

RADIATION PATTERN
The dipole is an electric field antenna,
means that the magnetic field is zero at
the near field.
The radiation pattern is like a donut
cake with the maximum perpendicular
to the dipole, and a null along it.
The polarization is along the dipole.

D) DIPOLE ANTENNAS
Cont.

The 3D plot of the radiation pattern of a dipole

antenna

D) DIPOLE ANTENNAS
Cont.

The radiation pattern for the Electric field for

a folded dipole antenna

D) DIPOLE ANTENNAS
Cont.
The radiation pattern
of the dipole all the field
is electric as shown

D) DIPOLE ANTENNAS
Cont.
The radiation pattern
of the dipole, the
magnetic field equals zero

D) DIPOLE ANTENNAS
Cont.

When the length of the dipole

exceeds lambda the radiation pattern
takes
a new shape due to the
appearance of the grating lobes
where the major lobes divides into
multiple lobes .

D) DIPOLE ANTENNAS
Cont.

E) DIELECTRIC (LENS)
ANTENNAS

Lenses play a similar role to that of reflectors in reflector

antennas: they collimate divergent energy.
Used at the higher microwave frequencies (often preferred to
reflectors at frequencies > 100 GHz) and are useful in mm
microwave region.

E) DIELECTRIC (LENS)
ANTENNAS cont.
BASIC PRINCIPLE

E) DIELECTRIC (LENS)
ANTENNAS
velocity
of em cont.
wave through

The
a
dielectric materal is less than that in free
space.
The section of spherical em wave that
travels through the center (the greatest
thickness) of the dielectric material will
travel most slowly compared to both end.
The velocities of the spherical wave
entering the lens will be controlled and the
curved wavefront will become a plane
wavefront with constant phase in front of
the dielectric antenna (refraction based on
Snells law).

E) DIELECTRIC (LENS)
ANTENNAS
cont. teflon
contructed
from polistyrene,

Are
or
any denser dielectric material to produce
large diffraction (belauan) although its size
and weight is small. The material use will
cause the wave to attenuate greatly (losses
and absortion of signal - greatest
attenuation at center thickest lens).
To avoid this situation, zoned and stepped
dielectric antennas are used so that the
optical path can be divided into paths
differing by integral multiples of a
wavelength from one zone to another.

E) DIELECTRIC (LENS)
ANTENNAS
Basic
dielectric lensCont.
: Requires a specific wavelength due to its
thicness.
Its usage is not practical as compared to the
stepped or zoned dielectric lens antenna which
has different path for different wavelength.

E) DIELECTRIC (LENS)
ANTENNAS Cont.

Stepped or
antenna :-

zoned

dielectric

lens

Used to reduced the lens thickness and

to decrese the curveture of the spherical
wave.

F) PRINTED (MICROSTRIP OR
PATCH) ANTENNA

A patch antenna is a narrowband, wide-beam

antenna.
Fabricated by etching the antenna element pattern
in metal trace bonded to an insulating dielectric
substrate, such as a printed circuit board, with a
continuous metal layer bonded to the opposite
side of the substrate which forms a ground plane.
Microstrip antenna shapes :- ex : square,
rectangular, circular and elliptical
Some patch antennas do not use a dielectric
substrate and instead made of a metal patch
mounted above a ground plane using dielectric
spacers; the resulting structure is less rugged but
has a wider bandwidth.

F) PRINTED (MICROSTRIP OR
PATCH) ANTENNA Cont.

Microstrip antenna a very low profile, are mechanically

rugged and can be shaped to conform to the curving skin
of a vehicle, they are often mounted on the exterior of
aircraft and spacecraft, or are incorporated into
mobile radio communications devices.

F) PRINTED (MICROSTRIP OR
PATCH) ANTENNA Cont.
TYPES OF MICROSTRIP ANTENNAS:

F) PRINTED (MICROSTRIP OR
PATCH) ANTENNA Cont.
ADVANTAGES
High accuracy in manufacturing , the design is
executed by Photo etching.
Easy to integrate with other devices.
An array of microstrip antennas can be used to form a
pattern that is difficult to synthesize using a single
element.
We can obtain high directivity using microstrip arrays.
Have a main radiating edge , this makes it useful for
mobile Phones to avoid radiation inside the device .
Small sized applicable for handheld portable
communication.

F) PRINTED (MICROSTRIP OR
PATCH) ANTENNA Cont.
DISADVANTAGES
Narrow band width ( 1% ) , while mobiles need ( 8% ).
Low efficiency , especially for short circuited microstrip
antenna.
Some feeding techniques like aperture and proximity coupling
are difficult to fabricate.
An array suffers presence of feed network decreasing
efficiency , also microstrip antennas are relatively expensive.

F) PRINTED (MICROSTRIP OR
PATCH) ANTENNA Cont.
MICROSTRIP VS. REFLECTORS
Microstrip Antennas

Preferred

for

low

Reflector Antennas

directivity

Performed

for

high

directivity

applications.

applications as the effect of blockage is

Lower efficiency.

less.

Suffers low efficiency caused by feed

Higher efficiency.

network for arrays.

Smart

antennas,

uses

electronic

Struts.

scanning when combined with phase

shifters.

More

accurate

manufacturing

by

photo etching.

Feeding is by coupling or coax feed

lines.

Suffers blockage caused by fixation

Uses mechanical scanning .
Less accuracy , sometimes parabolic
surfaces are rough.

Uses other antenna (dipole , monopole,

apertures , etc) as a feed.

G- PHASED ARRAY
ANTENNA
Is an array of antennas in which the relative
phases of the respective signals feeding the
antennas are varied in such a way that the
effective radiation pattern of the array is
reinforced in a desired direction and suppressed
in undesired directions.
Phased array transmission is use to enhance
transmission of radio waves in one direction.
A phased array antenna is composed of lots of
radiating elements each with a phase shifter.
Beams are formed by shifting the phase of the
signal emitted from each radiating element, to
provide constructive/destructive interference so
as to steer the beams in the desired direction

Phased Array Antenna

(Cont)
Areas of the antenna matrix can act as
separate antennas. This allows many
antenna beam patterns to be individually
controlled at the same time. A large,phasesteered antenna system could be used to
control the positions of many aircraft as at
larger airport.
In the figure 1 (left) both radiating elements
are fed with the same phase. The signal is
amplified by constructive interference in the
main direction. The beam sharpness is
improved by the destructive interference

Phased Array Antenna

(Cont)

In the figure 1 (right), the signal is emitted by the lower

radiating element with a phase shift of 22 degrees earlier
than of the upper radiating element. Because of this the
main direction of the emitted sum-signal is moved upwards.
(Note: Radiating elements have been used without reflector
in the figure. Therefore the back lobe of the shown antenna
diagrams is just as large as the main lobe.)

Phased Array Antenna

(Cont)
The main beam always points in the direction
of the increasing phase shift.
If the signal to be radiated is delivered through
an electronic phase shifter giving a continuous
phase shift, the beam direction will be
electronically adjustable. However, this cannot
be extended unlimitedly.
The highest value, which can be achieved for
the Field of View (FOV) of a phased array
antenna is 120 (60 left and 60 right). With
the sine theorem the necessary phase moving
can be calculated

Phased Array Antenna

(Cont)
Advantages

Disadvantages

high gain width los side lobes

Ability to permit the beam to jump from one

120 degree sector in azimuth

target to the next in a few microseconds

and elevation

Ability to provide an agile beam under computer

control

the coverage is limited to a

deformation of the beam while

the deflection

arbitrarily modes of surveillance and tracking

low frequency agility

free eligible Dwell Time

very complex structure

multifunction operation by emitting several

beams simultaneously

Fault of single components reduces the

capability and beam sharpness, but the system
remains operational

(processor, phase shifters)

still high costs

Phased Array Antenna

(Cont)
CONCLUSION:
Beamforming antenna systems improve wireless
network performance
increase system capacity
improve signal quality
suppress interference and noise
save power
Beamforming antennas improve infrastructure
networks performance. They may improve ad hoc
networks performance. New MAC protocol standards
are needed.
Vector antennas may replace spatial arrays to further
improve beamforming performance

Phased Array Antenna

(Cont)

The relative amplitudes of and constructive and

destructive interference effects among the signals
radiated by the individual antennas determine the
effective radiation pattern of the array. A phased array
may be used to point a fixed radiation pattern, or to
scan rapidly in azimuth or elevation.

DIFFERENT TYPES OF
PHASED ARRAYS
There are two main types of
beamformers:
time domain beamformers
frequency domain beamformers
A graduated attenuation window is
sometimes applied across the face of
the array to improve side-lobe
suppression performance, in addition to
the phase shift.

TIME DOMAIN
BEAMFORMER
works by introducing time delays.
The basic operation is called "delay and
sum". It delays the incoming signal from
each array element by a certain amount of
time, and then adds them together.
The most common kind of time domain
beam former is serpentine waveguide.
Active phase array uses individual delay
lines that are switched on and off. Yttrium
iron garnet phase shifters vary the phase
delay using the strength of a magnetic
field.

FREQUENCY DOMAIN
BEAMFORMERS

TWO DIFFERENT TYPES OF FREQUENCY DOMAIN

BEAMFORMERS:
separates the different frequency components that are present in
the received signal into multiple frequency bins (using either an
DFT or a filterbank). When different delay and sum beamformers
are applied to each frequency bin, the result is that the main
lobe simultaneously points in multiple different directions at each
of the different frequencies. This can be an advantage for
communication links, and is used with the SPS-48 radar.
makes use of Spatial Frequency. Discrete samples are taken from
each of the individual array elements. The samples are processes
using a Discrete Fourier Transform (DFT). The DFT introduces
multiple different discrete phase shifts during processing. The
outputs of the DFT are individual channels that correspond with
evenly spaced beams formed simultaneously. A 1 dimensional
DFT produces a fan of different beams. A 2 dimensional DFT
produces beams with a pineapple configuration.

FREQUENCY DOMAIN
BEAMFORMERS (CONT)
These techniques are used to create two kinds
of phase array.
Dynamic - an array of variable phase shifters
are used to move the beam
Fixed - the beam position is stationary with
respect to the array face and the whole antenna
is moved
There are two further sub-categories that
modify the kind of dynamic array or fixed array.
Active - amplifiers or processors in each phase
shifter element
Passive - large central amplifier with attenuating
phase shifters

Dynamic Phased Array

Each array element incorporates an adjustable phase shifter that are
collectively used to move the beam with respect to the array face.
Dynamic phase array require no physical movement to aim the beam.
The beam is moved electronically. This can produce antenna motion
fast enough to use a small pencil-beam to simultaneously track
multiple targets while searching for new targets using just one radar
set (track while search).
As an example, an antenna with a 2 degree beam with a pulse rate of
1 kHz will require approximately 16 seconds to cover an entire a
hemisphere consisting of 16,000 pointing positions. This configuration
provides 6 opportunities to detect a Mach 3 vehicle over a range of
100 km (62 mi), which is suitable for military applications.
The position of mechanically steered antennas can be predicted,
which can be used to create electronic countermeasures that interfere
with radar operation. The flexibility resulting from phase array
operation allows beams to be aimed at random locations, which
eliminates this vulnerability. This is also desirable for military
applications.

Fixed Phase Array

Fixed phase array antennas are typically used to create an antenna
with a more desirable form factor than the conventional parabolic
reflector or cassegrain reflector. Fixed phased array radar
incorporate fixed phase shifters. This kind of phase array is
physically moved during the track and scan process. There are two
configurations.
Multiple frequencies with a delay-line
Multiple adjacent beams
The SPS-48 radar uses multiple transmit frequencies with a
serpentine delay line along the left side of the array to produce
vertical fan of stacked beams. Each frequency experiences a
different phase shift as it propagates down the serpentine delay
line, which forms different beams. A filter bank is used to split apart
the individual receive beams. The antenna is mechanically rotated.
Semi-active radar homing uses monopulse radar that relies on a
fixed phase array to produce multiple adjacent beams that
measure angle errors. This form factor is suitable for gimbal
mounting in missile seekers.

Active Phase Array

Active phase arrays elements incorporate
transmit amplification with phase shift in
each antenna element (or group of
elements). Each element also includes
receive pre-amplification. The phase
shifter setting is the same for transmit
and receive.
Active phase array do not require phase
reset after the end of the transmit pulse,
which is compatible with Doppler radar
and Pulse-Doppler radar.

Passive Phase Array

Passive phase arrays typically use large amplifiers that
produce all of the microwave transmit signal for the
antenna. Phase shifters typically consist of waveguide
elements that contain phase shifters controlled by magnetic
field, voltage gradient, or equivalent technology.
The phase shift process used with passive phase array
typically puts the receive beam and transmit beam into
caddy-corner quadrants. The sign of the phase shift must be
inverted after the transmit pulse is finished and before the
receive period begins to place the receive beam into the
same location as the transmit beam. That requires a phase
impulse that degrades sub-clutter visibility performance on
Doppler radar and Pulse-Doppler radar. As an example,
Yttrium iron garnet phase shifters must be changed after
transmit pulse quench and before receiver processing starts
to align transmit and receive beams. That impulse
introduces FM noise that degrades clutter performance.

MICROWAVE FEEDER SYSTEM (DRIVER ELEMENT)

TYPES OF FEEDER

Omnidirectional
Cassegrain
Gregorian
Horn feed

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Parabolic antennas are also classified by the type

of feed, i.e. how the radio waves are
supplied
to the antenna.
The primary antenna is placed at the parabolic focus
point.
Reason: produce better transmission and reception.
(enhance directivity and gain)
The primary antenna has to be used together with the
reflector to avoid the flaring of the radiation pattern and
thus reduced the directivity.
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DIPOLE FEEDER
SPHERICAL REFLECTOR TO DIRECT WAVE TO THE MAIN
REFLECTOR
MAIN REFLECTOR

PRIMARY FEED DIPOLE AT FOCUS

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AXIAL OR FRONT FEED

The most common type of feed, with

the feed antenna located in front of
the dish at the focus, on the beam
axis.
A disadvantage of this type is that
the feed and its supports block some
of the beam, which limits the
aperture efficiency to only 55 - 60%.
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AXIAL OR FRONT FEED

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OFF-AXIS OR OFFSET FEED

The reflector is an asymmetrical segment of a

paraboloid, so the focus, and the feed antenna,
is located to one side of the dish.
The purpose of this design is to move the feed
structure out of the beam path, so it doesn't
block the beam.
It is widely used in home satellite television
dishes, which are small enough that the feed
structure would otherwise block a significant
percentage of the signal.
Offset feed is also used in multiple reflector
designs such as the Cassegrain and Gregorian.

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OFF-AXIS OR OFFSET FEED

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CASSEGRAIN FEED

The feed is located on or behind the dish, and

radiates
forward,
illuminating
a
convex
hyperboloidal secondary reflector at the focus of
the dish.
The radio waves from the feed reflect back off the
secondary reflector to the dish, which forms the
outgoing beam

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CASSEGRAIN FEED

The advantage of this configuration is that the feed,

with its waveguides and "front end" electronics does
not have to be suspended in front of the dish, so it is
used for antennas with complicated or bulky feeds,
such as large satellite communication antennas and
radio telescopes.
Aperture efficiency is on the order of 65 - 70%.
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CASSEGRAIN FEED

Focus points for the secondary and primary

reflectors will meet at the same point.
Radiation from the horn antenna will be
reflected by the secondary reflector and
transmitted to the primary reflector to
collimate the radiation.
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GREGORIAN FEED
Similar to the Cassegrain design except that
the secondary reflector is concave,
(ellipsoidal) in shape.
Aperture efficiency over 70% can be
achieved.

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HORN FEED
It is widely used as a primary feeder,
because of the flaring directivity pattern ,
thus preventing refraction.
MAIN REFLECTOR
PRIMARY FEED HORN

WAVEGUIDE/TRANSMISSION LINE

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FACTORS AFFECTING THE ANTENNA

RADIATION PATTERN

Radiation
pattern
refers
to
the
performance ot the antenna for example
when it is mounted far away from objects
such as buildings or mountain ( earth) by
which reflecting signal might affect the
shape of the pattern.

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FACTORS AFFECTING THE ANTENNA

Figures below show the 3-dimensional models (polar graf/diagram)
of field strength or power density measurements made at a fixed
distance from an antenna in a given plane.

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FACTORS AFFECTING THE ANTENNA

Figures below show the 3-dimensional models (polar graf/diagram)
of field strength or power density measurements made at a fixed
distance from an antenna in a given plane.

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BEAM WIDTH (BEAM / FLARED ANGLE)

It is the angle subtended by the points at which the
radiation power falls to the half of its maximum
power.
In other words, the field strength has fallen to 1/2
(70.7 % ) of its maximum voltage or the angle
measured between the -3dB (half power) points on
the major lobe of an antennas radiation pattern.

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GAINper unit area

It is defined asANTENNA
the ratio of power
received from the antenna at a point in space to the
power received from an isotropic antenna at the
same point in space.

The capability of a directive antenna to concentrate

power in a given direction is the capability to direct
radio frequency energy into a given region and not in
all direction.

For transmitting antenna, it refers to how far is the

concentration of transmission power in a given
direction.

For receiving antenna, it refers to how far its receive

the best signal in a given direction rather than in all
direction.
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CHARACTERISTIC OF PARABOLOID ANTENNA

To convert the spherical waveform produced at a
focus point to the plane wave.
All the energy received from the free space which is
the same as the parabolic axis (Rx) will be reflected
to the focus point.
ADVANTAGES
The gain can be increased whenever needed.
Can be operated at any frequency in the microwave
zone.
Simple Installation.
DISADVANTAGES
Difficult to install with high accuracy.
Operational frequency limited to the types of dish
used.
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GAIN
GAIN ;

G =

4 A
2

Where;
G = gain;
A = area of parabolic dish (m2);
= wavelength of operational frequency (m)
If the area of the dish, A
A = d2
4
Where;
A = area of parabolic dish (m2);
d = diameter of dish opening (m)
Beamwidth = 115
d
= antenna beamwidth or angle between half
power points ( )
= wavelength (m)

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