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B.tech/3rd Yr./EEE
Mewar University, Chittorgarh
Contents
a. Load-Flow analysis
b. Introduction to Newton Raphson Method
Gauss Iteration
There are a number of different iterative methods
we can use. We'll consider two: Gauss and Newton.
With the Gauss method we need to rewrite our
equation in an implicit form: x = h(x)
To iterate we first make an initial guess of x, x (0) ,
and then iteratively solve x (v +1) h( x ( v ) ) until we
find a "fixed point", x,
such that x h(x).
(v )
x
1
2
2.41421
2.55538
2.59805
k
5
6
7
8
9
(v)
x
2.61185
2.61612
2.61744
2.61785
2.61798
4
Stopping Criteria
A key problem to address is when to stop the
iteration. With the Guass iteration we stop when
with x ( v ) @x ( v 1) x ( v )
x ( v )
x
i
i 1
x max i x i
5
S*i
*
Vi
*
Vi I i
n
* *
Y
V
V
Y
ik k
i ikVk
k 1
k 1
Vi
Vi
YikVk
k 1
YikVk
k 1
YiiVi
Vi
n
k 1,k i
1 S*i
Vi
* YikVk
Yii V
k
1,
k
YikVk
k 1
YikVk
SLoad =1.0+j0.5p.u.
5 j14.95 5 j15
j
15
5
j
14.70
1 S2
V2
* YikVk
Y22 V2 k 1,k i
-1 j 0.5
1
V2
(5 j15)(1.00)
*
5 j14.70
V2
(v )
V2
1.000 j 0.000
0.9671 j 0.0568
0.9624 j 0.0553
v
3
4
(v)
V2
0.9622 j 0.0556
0.9622 j 0.0556
9
10
Slack Bus
In previous example we specified S2 and
V1 and then solved for S1 and V2.
We can not arbitrarily specify S at all
buses because total generation must
equal total load + total losses
We also need an angle reference bus.
To solve these problems we define one
bus as the "slack" bus. This bus has a
fixed voltage magnitude and angle, and
a varying real/reactive power injection.
11
Gauss-Seidel Advantages
Each iteration is relatively fast
(computational order is proportional
to number of branches + number of
buses in the system
Relatively easy to program
13
Gauss-Seidel Disadvantages
Tends to converge relatively slowly,
although this can be improved with
acceleration
Has tendency to miss solutions,
particularly on large systems
Tends to diverge on cases with negative
branch reactances (common with
compensated lines)
Need to program using complex numbers
14
Newton-Raphson Algorithm
Newton-Raphson method is a numerical technique
for solving non-linear equations.
The second major power flow solution method is the
Newton-Raphson algorithm.
Key idea behind Newton-Raphson is to use
sequential linearization
15
Newton-Raphson Method
(scalar)
(v)
, define
x ( v ) x - x ( v )
2. Represent f ( x ) by a Taylor series about f ( x )
(v)
df
(
x
) (v)
(v)
f ( x ) f ( x )
x
dx
2
1 d f (x
2 dx 2
(v)
(v) 2
16
Newton-Raphson Method,
contd
3. Approximate f ( x ) by neglecting all terms
except the first two
(v )
df
(
x
) (v)
(v )
f ( x ) 0 f ( x )
x
dx
df ( x )
(v)
x
f (x )
dx
( v 1)
(v)
(v)
17
Newton-Raphson Example
Use Newton-Raphson to solve f ( x) x 2 - 2 0
The equation we must iteratively solve is
x
(v )
(v )
( v 1)
( v 1)
(v)
df ( x )
(v)
f
(
x
)
dx
(v) 2
(( x ) - 2)
( v )
2x
x
(v)
(v)
(v)
1
(v ) 2
2 x (v ) (( x ) - 2)
18
Newton-Raphson Example,
contd
x
( v 1)
(v)
1
(v) 2
((
x
) - 2)
2 x (v )
x(v )
1
1.5
f ( x(v) )
1
0.25
x ( v )
0.5
0.08333
1.41667
6.953 103
2.454 103
1.41422
6.024 106
19
Sequential Linear
Approximations
Function is f(x) = x2 - 2 = 0.
Solutions are points where
f(x) intersects f(x) = 0 axis
At each
iteration the
N-R method
uses a linear
approximation
to determine
the next value
for x
20
Newton-Raphson Comments
When close to the solution the error
decreases quite quickly -- method has
quadratic convergence
f(x(v)) is known as the mismatch, which we
would like to drive to zero
Stopping criteria is when f(x(v)) <
Results are dependent upon the initial guess.
What if we had guessed x(0) = 0, or x (0) =
-1?
NR method is not sensitive to starting
solution.
21
Multi-Variable NewtonRaphson
Next we generalize to the case where x is an ndimension vector, and f (x) is an n-dimension function
x1
x
2
x
M
x
n
f1 ( x)
f 2 ( x)
f n ( x)
f (x)
23
f1 (x)
f 2 (x)
f (x)
2
f (x )
x1
M
M
f ( x )
n
f (x)
n
x1
f1 (x)
L
x2
f 2 (x)
L
x2
O
O
f n (x)
L
x2
f1 (x)
xn
f 2 (x)
xn
M
f n (x)
xn
x1
x
2
M
x
n
Jacobian Matrix
The n by n matrix of partial derivatives is known
as the Jacobian matrix, J (x)
f1 (x)
x
1
f1 (x)
L
x2
f 2 (x)
J (x) x1
f (x)
n
x1
f 2 (x)
L
x2
O
O
f n (x)
L
x2
f1 (x)
xn
f 2 (x)
xn
M
f n (x)
xn
25
References
a. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=WlQclObEAiA
b. Book: power system engineering/Ngrath &
kothari/1st edition, 6.6
26
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