Ultrasonic Testing

Day 2
Copyright 2004 WI Ltd

Sound Waveforms
Sound travels in different waveforms in
different conditions

Compression wave
Shear wave
Surface wave
Lamb wave

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Compression / Longitudinal
Vibration and propagation in the same
direction / parallel
Travel in solids, liquids and gases

Particle vibration

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Propagation

Shear / Transverse
Vibration at right angles / perpendicular to
direction of propagation
Travel in solids only
Velocity 1/2 compression (same material)

Particle vibration

Propagation
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Surface Wave
Elliptical vibration
Velocity 8% less than shear
Penetrate one wavelength deep

Easily dampened by heavy grease or wet finger

Follows curves but reflected by sharp corners or
surface cracks
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Lamb / Plate Wave

Produced by the manipulation of surface
waves and others
Used mainly to test very thin materials /
plates
Velocity varies with plate thickness and
frequencies

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SYMETRIC

ASSYMETRIC

Compression v Shear
Frequency
0.5MHz
1 MHz
2MHz
4MHz
6MHZ

Compression
11.8
5.9
2.95
1.48
0.98

Shear
6.5
3.2
1.6
0.8
0.54

The smaller the wavelength the better the

sensitivity
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Sound travelling through a material

Velocity varies according to the material
Compression waves

Shear waves

Steel

5960m/sec

Steel

3245m/sec

Water

1470m/sec

Water

NA

Air

344m/sec

Air

NA

Copper

4700m/sec

Copper

2330m/sec

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Sound at an Interface
Sound will be either transmitted across
or reflected back
Reflected

Interface

Transmitted

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How much is reflected and

transmitted depends upon the
relative acoustic impedance of
the 2 materials

Acoustic Impedance
Definition
The Resistance to the
passage of sound
within a material
Measured in
kg / m2 x sec

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Formula

Z V
= Density , V = Velocity

Steel
46.7 x 106
Water
1.48 x 106
Air 0.0041 x 106
Perspex 3.2 x 106

% Sound Reflected at an
Interface
2

Z1 Z 2

100 % reflected
Z1 Z 2
% Sound Reflected + % Sound Transmitted = 100%
Therefore
% Sound Transmitted = 100% - % Sound Reflected
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How much sound is reflected at a steel to water

interface?
Z1 (Steel) = 46.7 x 106
Z2 (Water) =1.48 x 106
2

46.7 1.48

100

%
reflected
46.7 1.48
2

45.22
48.18 100 % reflected
0. 93856 100 88.09% reflected
2

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How much sound transmitted?

100 % - the reflected sound
Example : Steel to water
100 % - 88 % ( REFLECTED) = 12 % TRANSMITTED

The BIGGER the Acoustic Impedance Ratio

or Difference between the two materials:
More sound REFLECTED than transmitted.

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Air

Steel
Steel

Large Acoustic Impedance

Ratio

Air
Large Acoustic Impedance
Ratio

Aluminum

Steel
Steel

Steel

No Acoustic Impedance
Difference
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Small Acoustic Impedance

Difference

Sound travelling through a material

Loses intensity
due to

Beam Spread

Attenuation

Sound beam comparable

to a torch beam

Energy losses due to

material

Reduction differs for small

and large reflectors

Made up of absorption
and scatter

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Scatter
The bigger the grain
size the worse the
problem
The higher the
frequency of the
probe the worse the
problem
1 MHz

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5 MHz

Beam Spread
The sound beam
spread out and the
intensity decreases

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Beam spread and Attenuation combined

Attenuation and beam
spread. 6dB+ reduction

80%
FSH
40%
FSH

80%
FSH
36%
FSH

No attenuation,only beam
spread. 6dB reduction
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Sound Intensity
Comparing the intensity of 2 signals

I 0 P0

I1 P1
Electrical power proportional to the
square of the voltage produced
2

P0 (V0 )
2
P1 (V1 )
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Hence

I 0 (V0 )
2
I1 (V1 )

Sound Intensity
2

I 0 (V0 )
2
I1 (V1 )

Therefore

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Will lead to large ratios

2

I0
(V0 )
Log..10 Log..10 2
I1
(V1 )
Log..10

I0
V0
2 Log..10 BELS
I1
V1

Log..10

I0
V0
20 Log..10 dB
I1
V1

2 signals at 20% and 40% FSH.

What is the difference between them in dBs?

dB 20 Log..10

H0
H1

40
dB 20 Log..10 20 Log ..10 2
20
dB 20 0.3010
dB 6dB
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2 signals at 10% and 100% FSH.

What is the difference between them in dBs?

dB 20 Log..10

H0
H1

100
dB 20 Log..10
20 Log ..1010
10
dB 20 1
dB 20dB
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Amplitude ratios in decibels

2:1
4:1
5:1
10 : 1
100 : 1

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=
=
=
=
=

6dB
12dB
14dB
20dB
40dB

50%
25%
20%
10%
1%

Sound Generation

Hammers (Wheel tapers)

Magnetostrictive
Lasers
Piezo-electric

magnetostrictive
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Piezo-Electric Effect
When exposed to an alternating current a
crystal expands and contracts

Converting electrical energy into mechanical

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Piezo-Electric Materials
QUARTZ
Resistant to wear
Insoluble in water
Resists ageing
Inefficient converter of
energy
Needs a relatively high
voltage
Very rarely used nowadays

LITHIUM SULPHATE
Efficient receiver
Low electrical
impedance
Operates on low voltage
Water soluble
Low mechanical
strength
Useable only up to 30C
Used mainly in medical

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Polarized Crystals
Powders heated to
high temperatures
Pressed into shape
Cooled in very
strong electrical
fields

Examples
Barium titanate (Ba Ti O3)
Lead metaniobate
(Pb Nb O6)
Lead zirconate titanate
(Pb Ti O3 or Pb Zr O3)

Most of the probes for conventional usage use

PZT : Lead Zirconate Titanate

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Probes

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Probes
The most important part of the
probe is the crystal
The crystal are cut to a
particular way and thickness to
give the intended properties
Most of the conventional crystal
are X cut to produce
Y
Compression wave

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Probes
The frequency of the probe depends on
the THICKNESS of the crystal
Formula for frequency:
Ff = V / 2t
Where

Ff = the Fundamental frequency

V = the velocity in the crystal

t = the thickness of the crystal
Fundamental frequency is the frequency of the material ( crystal )
where at that frequency the material will vibrate.

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Probes
The Thinner the crystal the Higher the frequency
Which of the followings has the Thinnest crystal ?
1 MHz Compression probe
5 MHz Compression probe
10 MHz Shear probe
25 MHz Shear probe

25 MHz Shear
Probe

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Probe Design
Compression Probe
Normal probe
0

Electrical
connectors

Housing
Damping
Transducer or
crystal

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Probe Design
Shear Probe
Angle probe
Backing
medium

Damping

Transducer or
crystal

Probe
Shoe

Perspex wedge
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Probe Design
Twin Crystal

Transmitter Receiver

Separator /
Insulator
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Focusing
lens

Advantages
Can be focused
Measure thin plate
Near surface
resolution

Disadvantages
Difficult to use on
curved surfaces
Sizing small defects
Signal amplitude /
focal spot length

Automated Inspections
Pulse Echo
Through Transmission
Transmission with Reflection
Contact scanning
Gap scanning
Immersion testing
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Gap Scanning
Probe held a fixed
distance above the
surface (1 or 2mm)
Couplant is fed into
the gap

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Immersion Testing
Component is placed in a water filled tank
Item is scanned with a probe at a fixed
distance above the surface

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Immersion Testing
Water
path
distance
Front surface
Defect

Water path distance

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Back surface