Understanding Today’s

Diesel Fuel

National Biodiesel Board Technician Outreach Program

Objectives
 Understand the new face of diesel fuels
 What are today’s diesel fuel quality
standards
 How are these standards set?

 How do these fuel standards affect the

diesel engine operation?
- performance
- emissions
- fuel economy
Emissions Regulations in the
driver’s seat
 The Clean Air Act of QuickTime™ and a
1970 gave EPA broad TIFF (Uncompressed) decompressor
are needed to see this picture.

authority to regulate
motor vehicle
pollution, and the
Agency's emission
control policies have
become progressively
more stringent since
the early 1970's.
Diesel Emission Reductions
 Technology Pathway

Fuel system Better understanding

technology of combustion
EGR technology
Rate control
High pressure Others
Combustion
Multi-injection
technology Control
technology

PM trap
Aftertreatment
Fuel technology
technology
DOC
Alternate Fuels De-NOx
Low sulfur (Biodiesel)
What is Diesel Fuel
Various Petroleum Components:
 Paraffins

 Isoparaffins

 Napthenes

 Olefins

 Aromatic Hydrocarbons
How is diesel made?
 Petroleum coke is heated
up to separate the complex
mixture of hydrocarbons
into usable products like
diesel.

 Each petroleum derived

product is distinguished by
its boiling point.

 Diesel fuel undergoes a

hydro-treating process to
remove sulfur.
Typical Refinery Products
Product Boiling Range Boiling Range
Deg. C Deg. F
LPG -40 - 0 -40 - 31
Gasoline 30 - 200 80 - 400
Kerosene, Jet Fuel, #1 Diesel 170 - 270 340 - 515
#2 Diesel, Furnace Oil 180 - 340 350 - 650
Lube Oils 340 - 540 650 - 1000
Residual Oil 340 - 650 650 - 1200
Asphalt 540 + 1000 +
Petroleum Coke Solid

From: Schmidt, G.K. and Forster, E.J., “Modern Refining for Today’s Fuels
and Lubricants,” SAE Paper 861176, 1986.
Grades of Diesel Fuel
 1-D ( S15) S15, S500, & S5000
relate to sulfur
 1-D ( S500)
content
 1-D (S5000)
 2-D ( S15) Off-road versus On-road
 2-D ( S500) use
 2-D (S5000)
 4-D Varied in density and
viscosity
 ASTM Specifications for
Diesel
Grade Grade
Fuel
Grade
-ASTM
Grade
D 975
Grade
Property LS #1 LS #2 No. 1-D No. 2-D No. 4-D
°
Flash point C, min 38 52 38 52 55
Water and , sediment,
% vol, max. 0.05 0.05 0.05 0.05 0.50
Distillation °.,temp.,
C, 90%
Min. -- 282 -- 282 --
Max. 288 338 288 338 --
Kinematic ,Viscosity,
2
mm/ s 40at°C40
Min. 1.3 1.9 1.3 1.9 5.5
Max. 2.4 4.1 2.4 4.1 24.0
Ramsbottom carbon residue,
on 10%, %mass, max. 0.15 0.35 0.15 0.35 --
Ash, % mass, max. 0.01 0.01
0.01 0.01 0.10
Sulfur, % mass, max 0.05 0.05 0.50 0.50 2.00
Copper strip , corrosion,
Max 3 hours50 °C No.
at 50 3 . No.
3 3 3
No. . No.
3 3 --
Cetane Number, min. 40 40 40 40 30
One of the following
Properties must be met:
(1) cetane index 40 40 -- -- --
(2) , Aromaticity,
% , vol, max35 35 -- -- --
Diesel Fuel Specification
ASTM D 975
 Flashpoint  Sulfur
 Water and  Copper Strip
Sediment
Corrosion
 Distillation  Cetane
 Kinematic
Number
Viscosity
 Ramsbottom
 Cetane Index
Carbon Residue Aromaticity
 Ash  Cloud Point
Cetane Number
 Measures the readiness of a fuel to auto-ignite.
 High cetane means the fuel will ignite quickly at the
conditions in the engine (does not mean the fuel is
highly flammable or explosive).
 Most fuels have cetane numbers between 40 and 60.
 ASTM D 975 requires a minimum cetane number of 40
 Premium Diesel fuel typically has a cetane of 47
 ASTM methods are ASTM D-613 (ISO 5165) and D-6890
Cetane

 Cetane engine shown above from petroleum testing facility

 Ignition Delay: the period that occurs between the start of fuel injection and
the start of combustion; the higher the cetane number, the shorter the
ignition delay and the better the quality of combustion.
3 PROPANE METHANOL ETHANOL

Benzene

8 ISO OCTANE (GASOLINE)

Toluene Xylene

20 CETANE (DIESEL FUEL)

Low Cetane Impact
Poor Ignition Quality
Long ignition delay
Abnormal Combustion
Possible High Combustion Pressure
Increased Engine stress
Excessive Engine Knock
Smoke on Cold start
Cetane Index
 Cetane index is used as a  Cetane improvers that
substitute for the cetane may be added are not
number.
accounted for in the
 The cetane index is
index
calculated based on the
fuel's density and boiling
range.
 Two methods used
ASTM D-976 or D-4737.
Boiling Point and Volatility
 Diesel fuel volatility needs
vary for engine load, size,
& speed
 Buses & trucks benefit
from more volatile fuel
 ASTM D975 sets a min-
max range
 Defines the upper and lower limits
for 90% distilled point.
 No. 1 diesel: no lower limit, upper = 288 C
 No. 2 diesel: lower limit = 282 C, upper = 338
C.

 282C - 338C
90% Distillation
Temperature
 Volatility or Boiling Point is controlled by the Distillation specifcaition
or T90
 Primarily used to separate diesel fuels into different grades.
 Limits the amount of wax allowed in No. 1
 If distillation temperatures are too low, then the fuel may
have difficulty meeting the flashpoint requirement.
 If distillation temperatures are too high, then there is an
increased tendency of the fuel to deposit on the cylinder
wall, where it can be swept down past the rings and into
the lube oil.
 Viscosity
 Low viscosity = power
loss, component wear
due to injector leaking or
injection pump leak-down  Critical property for fuel injection
 Low viscosity = poor system performance
lubrication ability  Measured with ASTM D 445.
 High viscosity = Poor fuel
 #1 diesel fuel = 1.3 – 2.4 mm2/s
dispersion, ie improper
 #2 diesel fuel = 1.9 – 4.1 mm2/s
injector spray pattern
 High viscosity = high
pump resistance and
early pump failure
Carbon Residue
 Measure of a diesel fuel’s tendency to form
engine deposit
 Tests basically involve heating a sample of fuel to a
temperature where the fuel will pyrolyze (decompose
without oxygen), leaving a carbon-rich deposit (about
500°C)
 Test is frequently done on the 10% residue of fuel
distillation.
 Limitation is 0.35 mass percent for No. 2 D
 Limitation is 0.15 mass percent for No. 1 D
Ramsbottom Carbon Residue
 There are many tests for carbon
residue:
 Ramsbottom (D 524)
 Conradson (D 189)
 Micro Method (D 4530)
 Diesel fuel specification requires
Ramsbottom
 Carbon reside can vary with refinery
processes
Sulfur Content
 Sulfur can impact engine wear and deposits due
varying levels
 Sulfur in diesel will now harm new emission control
devices of 2007 & newer vehicles
 Sulfur burns to sulfur dioxide and sulfur trioxide,
which can combine with water to form sulfuric acid.
 Small droplets of sulfuric acid and other sulfates
contribute to particulate emissions.
 Sulfur is limited by the EPA for both on & off road
diesel fuels:
In 1993: Reduced from 5000 ppm to 500 ppm
In 2006: Reduced from 500 ppm to 15 ppm
Sulfur Testing
 ASTM D 129 was traditional method but did
not have sensitivity for new low sulfur
fuels. (Bomb method)
 ASTM D 2622, X-Ray Spectrometry, is more

sensitive but may not be adequate for 15

ppm diesel fuels.
Flashpoint
 Measures the temperature at which the vapors above
the liquid can be ignited.
 Primarily used to determine whether a liquid is
flammable or combustible
 Flashpoint is important for safety and hazard rating
 Both DOT and OSHA say that any liquid with a flash
point below 100F is flammable
 ASTM D 93 is most common test for diesel fuels.
 Can also be used to identify contamination from
other fuels.
 No. 1 = 38°C, No. 2 = 52°C
Flashpoint
Low temperature Operation
 Cloud point is the measurement of low temperate
operation
 It dictates the temperature at which fuel first starts to
crystallize and wax up when cooled
 Cloud point can predicate fuel filter clogging in some
fuel delivery systems, but not all
 Other Low temp tests include:

CFPP: Cold Filter Plugging Point

LTFT: Low Temperature Flow Test
Pour Point and Cold Soak Filtration Test
Cloud Point
 No specific value is given in ASTM D975.
 Requirements vary depending on geography.
 10th percentile temperature map corresponds to the
minimum temperature that would be reached no
more than 3 days out of 30 for the month. 
 ASTM D 975 contains similar maps for other low
temperature months in the United States.
Ash
 Abrasive Solids  Injector & Fuel pump
 Soluble metallic soaps wear
 Originates from  Piston and Ring wear
inorganic fuel  Solids = engine
components deposits
 D 975 requires ash to  Low ash lubricating
be < 0.01%, by mass oils - NEW
 Copper Strip Corrosion
 Used to predict problems with copper, brass, or bronze components
in a fuel system
 A measure of corrosiveness
 Polished copper strip is placed in fuel for 3 hours at 50°C, then
cleaned with a solvent and inspected for tarnish or corrosion.
 The strip is given a score between 1 and 4 with subdivisions indicated
by letters, i.e. 2c means moderate tarnish with lavender coloring.
 Diesel fuel is allowed to be No. 3, which allows all tarnish but no
actual corrosion.
Water and Sediment
 Measures free, not emulsified,
water and insoluble particles.
 Uses a centrifuge and cone-
shaped or pear-shaped bottles.
 Total volume of water and
sediment must be < 0.05%.
(500 ppm)
 Contamination issue in supply
line
 Engine impact: Filter plugging,
fuel injection system wear, and
corrosion, and opportunity for
microbial growth
Lubricity
 Lubricity test methods are
continually improving and being
evaluated
 Most common tests available to
test lubricity:
 SLBOCLE (scuffing load ball on
cylinder lubricity evaluator)
• ASTM D 6078-99
 HFRR (high frequency
reciprocating rig)
• ASTM D 6079-99
 D975 points to the HFRR test
 Limitation is 520 micron max of
wear at 60C
SLBOCLE
 SLBOCLE “ Scuffing Load Ball-On
Cylinder Lubricity Evaluator”
 Steel ball bearing on a steel rotating-
ring
 Immersed in the test fluid
 Weight is applied until a “scuff” mark
is seen on the rotating ring
 Tangential force recorded
 High Friction coefficient = scuffing
 3100 grams without scuffing passes
the SLBOCLE. (SWRI)
HFRR
 A steel ball
 Reciprocated (1mm)
 200g load at 50 Hz for
75 minutes
 2 mL of Fuel
 Adjust to 25 °C or 60 °C
(77 °F or 140 °F
 60°C preferred
 Ball contacts test disk (in
fuel)
Enhanced Lubricity
 Equipment benefits
 Superior lubricity
Ultra-low Sulfur Diesel  B2 has up to 66% more
lubricity than #2 Diesel
800
700  EPA required sulfur
600
500
reduction in diesel
400
300
 No overdosing concerns
200
100 WSD (micron)
HFRR
0
0.0 1.0 2.0 3.0 4.0 5.0
Biodiesel Blend (%)
 Density
 Specific gravity – ratio of the
density of the fuel to the density of
water.
 #1 diesel = 0.81
 #2 diesel = 0.840 – 0.855
 API gravity – common in petroleum
industry. API = 141.5/SG – 131.5
 Can be one indicator of fuel
economy, power, deposits, wear,
and exhaust smoke
 For example, a low API (or high
density) has bore BTUs/gallon which
could improve fuel economy
Energy Content
 Heating value of the No. 2 D
fuel 130,000 BTUs/gallon
 Not specified by ASTM
 Typically expressed as Gasoline
BTUs/gallon
114,200 BTUs/gallon
 Engine Manufacturers
 Impact fuel ecomony
Thermal & Oxidative Stability
 Chemical degradation occurs
with contact with oxygen for
long periods or at high
temperatures.
 Oxidation of diesel fuel can
form insolubles and
peroxides
 Peroxides increase deposits
and gumming on fuel pumps
and injection systems
 Filter plugging will also occur
 ASTM D975 now specifies a
stability parameter
Diesel Fuel Additives

QuickTime™ and a
TIFF (Uncompressed) decompressor
are needed to see this picture.
 Recent Changes in ASTM
D975 Diesel Fuel
specification
 Acid Number
 Allowance of up to 5 % biodiesel content

 Lubricity

 Stability
Resources for Diesel Fuel
Properties
 ASTM International
 EPA, Environmental Protection Agency

 Changes in Diesel Fuel

 USDA Biodiesel education

• Internal Combustion Engine Fundamentals, John B.

Heywood, McGraw Hill, 1988 ISBN 0-07-100499-8
• Automotive Fuels Reference Book, Keith Owen, Trevor
Coley SAE, 1995, ISBN 1-56091-589-7