Other External

influences

Context of
Leadership

Context of
teaching

The public, parents, interest

groups, inspectorate

Principal
Effectiveness

Teacher

Internal
environment

Effectiveness

Student
Context of

Effectiveness

Learning

Educational Outcomes

Domain of
school
administration
&
effectiveness
research

Merupakan kombinasi keberkesanan pengetua,

guru, murid, konteks (kepimpinan, pengajaran dan
pembelajaran)
Keberkesanan pengetua merupakan tunjang yang
dapat dilihat melalui kepimpinan serta mempunyai
pengaruh terhadap persekitaran dan komuniti
Keberkesanan guru pula ditentukan bukan sahaja
oleh kebolehan dan sumbangan tetapi turut
dipengaruhi oleh keberkesanan pengetua dan
konteks pengajaran
Adalah menjadi tanggungjawab pengetua
menyediakan beberapa aspek konteks pengajaran
yang kondusif
Pengaruh persekitaran luaran harus diambilkira
oleh kepimpinan sekolah, konteks pengajaran dan
pembelajaran

Individual Category Strategies

Relationship Strategies
Interaction Strategies
Global Strategies

a.

Focus only on one individual factor of the

structure
The principal effectiveness strategy
- personal characteristic
- professional characteristic
- job attitudes and behaviors

personality

Cognitive style

Principals personal
characteristics

Values and belief

abilities
qualifications

Principals professional
characteristics

Prof. development
training

Principalsjob attitudes
and behaviors

Job satisfaction, motivation

Leadership style

loyalty

Social involvement

Adminstrative task

Management strategy

b. The teacher effectiveness strategy

- personal attributes
- professional characteristics
- job attitudes and behaviors
c. The students effectiveness strategy
- abilities
- personalities
- cognitive styles
- learning attitudes and behaviors

personality
Cognitive style
Values and belief

teachers personal
characteristics

Personal maturity
abilities
qualifications

teachers professional
characteristics

Prof. development
training
Job satisfaction, motivation

teachers job attitudes

and behaviors

Professionalism

Professional Maturity
Turnover, absenteesim,
burn out

loyalty
Classroom
Management strategy

Role clarity, conflict

personality
Development stages
Cognitive style

students personal
characteristics
abilities

Demographic
characteristcs

Learning style
Previous learning
experiences
beliefs
students learning
attitudes and behaviors

alienation
Expectations,
motivations
achievements

d. The context of leadership

- description of variables related to internal or
external
environment (ethos, mores, cultures,
compositions,
resources, laws and regulations
e.

The context of teaching strategy

- situation factors of teaching such as structural
characteristic
- technologies and facilities for teaching
- human environment

Etos, mores, cultures

Leadership

Laws, regu;ations
Resources input

External environmental
constraint

expecatation

Characteristics of staff
Characteristics of
students
School traditions
Internal environmental
constraints

resources
School size, class size
Social relationship

Social norms, expectations

Context of teaching

Formalization,
centralization

authority
Class size

Structural
characteristics

Physical environment
School goals and tasks
Team teaching

Technologies and
facilities

Communication
Facilities for teaching
Curriculum system

Non academic staff

support

Time schedule

Social between staff

Characteristics of
human environment

Student support
Supportive climate

Social norms, group

pressure

f. The context of learning strategy

- structural characteristic
- facilities and arrangements for learning
- characteristics of human environment
g. The educational outcomes
- at individual level (personal achievement and
development)
- Group Level (students friendship, social network,
cooperation, moral and psychomotor norm,..)
- Society level (productive man power, society
stability, continuity, peace, cooperation

Context of learning

Class size

Structural
characteristics

Physical environment

School goals and tasks

Formal and hidden
curriculum
Facilities and
arrangement for learning

Examination system
Time schedule

Extra curricular
activities

Facilities for
development

Peer cultures
Characteristics of
human environment

Quality of peers
Classroom climate

Social norms and

relationships

a.

Focus on the relationship between two factors of

the school effectiveness structure or two
categories of variables
Effects of Principals
intent to investigate how principal effectiveness
variables are related to variables of teacher
effectiveness, educational outcomes, context of
teaching, context of learning, or organizational
environment
- How is the principals leadership style related to
teachers job attitude and students
achievement?

b. Effects of Teacher
often investigate how teacher effectiveness
variables are related to variables of student
effectiveness, context of learning, and educational
outcomes
- How are teachers teaching styles related to
students responses and involvement in learning?
c. Effects of Student
Focus is on effect of students personal
characteristics of learning attitudes to educational
outcomes.
- How is students self-concept related to their
academic achievements in examinations?

d. Effects of Context of Leadership

often investigate how constraints of the schools
external and internal environment affect principal
effectiveness variables.
- How are ethos in the community related to the
principals management style?
e. Effects of Context of Teaching
Focus on how variables of context of teaching
affect teacher effectiveness variables
- How is the schools organizational size related to
teachers feeling of belonging
- How are social norms among teachers related to
teachers performance?

Effects of Context of Learning

- how variables of context of learning are
related to student effectiveness variables?
- how does the physical environment of
classroom affect students concentration on
learning?
- how class size related to students social
interactions?

a.

Focus not only on main effects of the categories

of variables but also on their interaction effects.
Simple interactions strategies

Variables of
Principal
effectiveness

Variables of teacher
effectiveness

Variables of context of
teaching
Total effect on
Teacher effectiveness

C=

A+ B
(Main effect)

A x B
(interaction effect)

Variables of
teachers
effectiveness

C
B

Variables of
students
effectiveness

Variables of context
learning
Total effect on
Student effectiveness

C=

A+ B
(Main effect)

A x B
(interaction effect)

Contoh 3: Intricate Interaction Strategies

Focus on interaction effects between variables of

more than two categories.
Classrooms
physical
environment
Teachers teaching
styles

Students learning
behavior

Student peer
subculture
Total effect on TTS D = A+B+C + A x B + B x C + C X A + A X B X C

Often take the school organization as a whole,

describe the internal organizational environment
and study how it functions.
Variables involved come from multi categories
and multi-levels
- Organizational Climate Description Q
- Profile of a school
- School level Environment Q
In General it focus on whole school process and
intend to map school profiles that may be helpful
to identify the characteristics of effective schools
and ineffective schools

Menurut Averch, et al. (1994) terdapat 5

bentuk pendekatan iaitu: Pendekatan Input Output
Pendekatan Proses
Pendekatan Organisasi
Pendekatan Penilaian
Pendekatan Eksperiental

melihat sekolah sebagai kotak hitam yang

mengandungi pelajar
Sumber sumber dimasukkan kepada
pelajar dalam kotak hitam dan output
mengalir keluar
output ditakrifkan menerusi prestasi
kognitif yang menggunakan satu ujian
prestasi standad

Outputs
Inputs
Sumber sekolah

Pelajar

Hasil Pendidikan
(outcomes)

Rajah 1 Pendekatan input-output

Perubahan outcome pendidikan

disebabkan variasi dalam input sumber
Statistik : ex post facto , data silang regressi
berganda
Darjah keyakinan : kesahan dalaman dan
kesahan luarannya bergantung kepada ujian

Outcomes pelajar pencapaian kognitif - score dalam ujian

pembacan atau matematik yang standad
sumber sekolah- kualiti kemudahan
sekolah, purata pengalaman guru, tahap
kelulusan guru, purata saiz kelas, nisbah
guru pelajar
Faktor latar belakang - SES keluarga, tahap
pendidikan ibu bapa, lokasi tempat tinggal
Pengaruh rakan sebaya - sikap, motivasi
dan aspirasi pendidikan, pengaruh rakan
sebaya

Terdapat bukti yang lemah bahawa

sekolah mempunyai pengaruh yang kuat
terhadap outcomes pelajar
Sumber sekolah tidak membekalkan bukti
yang kukuh terhadap pencapaian pelajar
Faktor latar belakang didapati
mempunyai pengaruh yang kuat ke atas
pencapaian
Pengaruh rakan sebaya - hanya bukti
yang lemah mempengaruhi outcomes
pelajar

tumpuan kepada dalam kotak hitam

Sumber sumber dianggap sudah
sedia ada atau ditetapkan: yang
penting ialah proses proses
bagaimana sumber diolah/ dikenakan
kepada pelajar dan merangsang pelajar
kepada proses
Proses itu adalah berkaitan dengan
guru, pelajar, pengajaran pembelajaran
, atau interaksi sesama mereka.

Sumber
Processes

Hasil Pendidikan
outcomes

Pelajar

Rajah 2 The process approach

 Ciri

guru - kemahiran, perlakuan, sikap,

ekpektasi guru terhadap pelajar
Kaedah pengajaran - dilakukan dalam bilik
darjah atau dalam makmal, pemindahan
pembelajaran, pengukuhan/pemgayaan dan
maklumbalas, attention factors in learning
Ciri individu pelajar - kebolehan dan IQ,
kebolehan istimewa,perbezaan personaliti

Outcomes ialah ukuran prestasi kognitif

yang terhad
Penyelidikan selalunya bercorak eksperimen
kecil-kecilan dan kadang kadang dalam
makmal
Kesahan dalaman sama ada eksperimen itu
mempunyai rekabentuk yang sesuai

Kajian dalam bilik darjah

pendekatan pengajaran, perbezaan guru
dan saiz kelas tidak menunjukkan kesan
yang berterusan ke atas outcomes pelajar
kaedah pengajaran pula mencadangkan
bahawa tiada perbezaan dalam kaedah
yang diperkenalkan terhadap pencapaian
pelajar

Kajian makmal
kaedah penyampaian pengajaran yang
terancang memberikan kesan yang
kukuh terhadap pencapaian
konsep pengukuhan dan ganjaran yang
positif memberikan keyakinan yang
positif

Sekolah dilihat sebagai institusi yang

memuaskan matlamat dan tuntutan yang
pelbagai daripada birokrasi dalaman,
masyarakat, ibubapa dan pelajar
Input ialah peraturan, prosedur, insentif
dalam sistem
Pendekatan ini lebih memberi perhatian
kepada orang orang dalam sistem seperti
guru, pentadbir , pegawai

Tanggungjawaban
Innovasi
,Penyesuaian

Peraturan
Prosedur
Insentif

Hasil yang
memuaskan bagi
pelajar

Objektif Lain

Rajah 3 - The Organizational Approach

Ukuran tanggungjawaban :- bagaimana

organisasi sekolah respond kepada
perubahan pelanggan.
Bagaimana sekolah yang responsive
dapat menghasilkan outcomes akademik
yang memuaskan
Kebanyakan penyelidikan berbentuk kajian
kes

terdapat hubungan positif antara saiz

sistem dengan sentralisasi
lebih besar birokrasi dan lebih tinggi
sentralisasi maka kurang berlaku inovasi
dan adaptasi peringkat organisasi
inovasi organisasi didapati tidak
menunjukkan penambahbaikan terhadap
outcomes pencapaian berbanding bentuk
tradisi tersedia ada

Cuba menganalisa keberkesanan tindakan

intervensi yang luas yang secara langsung
berkaitan dengan isu dasar sosial
Sumber yang diberikan kepada tiap - tiap
pelajar dipertingkatkan
soalan penyelidikan adalah intervensi yang
luas memberi kesan terhadap outcomes?

Pelajar
Hasil
Pendidikan
(outcomes)

Intervensi

Rajah 4 The evaluation approach

Tumpuan kepada apa yang berlaku atau

terjadi kepada pelajar pada akhirnya
tumpuan utama kesan pengalaman sekolah
ke atas konsep kendiri pelajar dan
hubungan dengan orang lain juga dengan
institusi sosial
Soalan penyeldikan : apa yang sekolah
lakukan kepada pelajar

Pelajar

Pemerhati/Penyelidik

Rajah 5 : Pendekatan Eksperiental

Penyelidikan dilakukan dengan cara

pemerhatian langsung melalui pemerhatian
langsung melalui pemerhatian turut serta
diikuti dengan huraian pengalaman
penyelidikan
pembolehubah yang terlibat : perhubungan pelajar guru dan kesannya ke
atas pelajar

 sistem

persekolahan dan kesannya ke atas

pelajar
perhubungan antara sekolah dengan
masyarakat dan kesannya terhadap pelajar
masalah kesahan dalaman dan objektiviti
penyelidikan