Issues in Social Science

Research

Introduction
Research ought to culminate into philosophy that
would guide action and practice. But seldom we
address to the philosophy of research and hence
hardly arrive at any philosophy. Of course, no
philosophy is final. But, the pursuit of ultimate
philosophy is a never ending process, which
research consistently pursues. In this process,
however, certain issues crop up. This address
attempts to highlight them.

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Issues

Ontological Issues
a) Factual Vs Phenomenological
b) Realism Vs Relativism
Epistemological Issues
Methodological Issues
a)
Monism Vs Dualism
b)
Eclecticism
c) Positivism Vs Anti-Positivism
d) Empirical Vs Interpretive
e) Objective Vs Subjective
f) Quantitative Vs Qualitative
Constructivism as a dilemma between theory and
practice
Ethnography Vs multiculturalism
Ethical Issues
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Research Design and Report Writing

Ontological Issues
The state of being is a question by itself in research. It

cuts across a myriad of possibilities about reality, fact

and truth. In essence all researches are meant to find
what exists. Therefore, there is nothing called invent,
and everything is attempted to be discovered.
What we state as real, fact, and truth is not the

absolute or obvious. It is the way one sees and

comprehends them, claiming a subjective discovery,
which is held as valid until proved to the contrary. Truth
can be untrue; fact can be non-fact, reality can be
really not real. Therefore, that which apparently exists
need constant probing.

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Ontological Issues
It is doubt and not faith which sows the seed of

ontological questioning. Shall we be doubting

thomases always deconstructing the established
philosophy or repose faith in the existing facts,
truths and realities constructed over a period of
time as accepted knowledge (sometimes claimed
to be common sense; which in fact is uncommon)?
Where the severance from the existing shall begin
and why and how and what the new existence one
is searching for are all ontological issues.

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Ontological Issues

Contd..

Any true research probing into the being shall

look into the philosophical moorings, physiological

existence, and different contours as differently
viewed by fellow researchers of the past and
present. This is the first purpose of any Review of
Literature, which gives rise to the epistemological
issues behind research.

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Factual Vs Phenomenological
Phenomenon and fact get distinguished on the

basis of observation and existence. And this

distinction also gets blurred on the same basis.
That which exists only can be observed. But what
is observed may not exist truly. This is where the
dilemma
emerges
between
fact
and
phenomena.
Therefore in research, phenomena is probed and
interpreted as a means to analyze facts; but, the
fact never gets captured in its conclusive and
final shape.
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Factual Vs Phenomenological
Contd..
This distortion, deviance and detraction of fact

from observed phenomena subscribes to

relentless and new endeavor for research.
The ontological dilemma emerges from this issue
and epistemological evidences are constantly
searched for establishing the elusive truth.
Dialectics, deconstruction theorists, in their
thesis-antithesis-synthesis model and linguistic
trap model respectively have captured the fact
versus phenomena structure.

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Realism Vs Relativism
Extended from the previous logic, this dimension also

addresses to the question of the degree up to which

relativity
influences
the
understanding
and
interpretation of the reality.
The reality has no other option than to subject itself to
the subjective perception of the observer. Perceptions
differ due to the cognitive and intellectual
idiosyncrasies typical to each individual organism in
the situation of reality.
Nevertheless, the ultimate goal of research being the
search for truth, the relativistic interpretation of the
real is projected as truth, though tentatively.
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Realism Vs Relativism Contd..

Doubt on what is found and on the so called

established truth; and not faith in it, is the

seed of consistent research.
Relativism in fact is the main propeller of
research, to whose forces realism spontaneously
subjects itself.
Behind these analyses the triumph of truth is
limited to the acceptance of the relative
mindset.

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Epistemological Issues
It is the science of knowledge acquisition, dissemination,

and development. It entails to know what we know and

how we came to know. It is an attempt to find the
meaning behind the so called reality. There could be
many meanings of the same or similar looking
phenomena, there by opening many frontiers of
knowledge.
Objectivist epistemology conceives of a reality beyond the
conscious. It believed that, nature existed even before the
homo sapiens came into being or attached value loaded
and relativist meaning to the already existing.

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Epistemological Issues Contd..

Constructionist epistemology, contradicts the

above by strongly contending that there could

be no meaning without the mind. Meaning is
not discovered but constructed. It is the
outcome of object-subject interactive inter-play.
Subjective epistemology is not same as
constructionist epistemology as it may emerge
out of dreams, superstitions, religious faith and
such other idiosyncrasies typical to a person.

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Epistemological Issues Contd..

These types however cannot be compartmentalized

as knowledge can ultimately be gained, tested,

revised, and accepted by the interplay between the
three approaches.
Knowledge need not be always tested on novelty,
nor by its absolute precision and obviousness.
There could be humanly fashioned ways of
acquiring,
disseminating
and
developing
knowledge. This is where the research has a role.

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Methodological Issues
Methods are many but not fool-proof as they are
developed by human knowledge which could be
erroneous and myopic to certain realities.
Researchers tend to see, listen and record what
they want to see, listen and record.
But it shall not discourage us to develop
methods as they are essential for any organized
activity including research as a knowledgepursuing effort.
Methods cut across sources of data for probing
into the present ontology and available as well
as possible epistemology.
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Methodological Issues Contd..

Case study, survey, exploratory, experimental,

empirical, in situ, ex post-facto methods are

available for use depending on the nature of
research problem and design.
Research problem is the beginning of any
scientific research where the questions for
probing are identified by combining ontological
contours and contexts and epistemological
concepts. Objectives and hypotheses emerge
from extensive and intensive review of
literature.

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Methodological Issues

Contd..

Research design helps in locating the sources of

data, identifying the sample structure, developing

the tools of data collection, and adopting the
framework for qualitative and quantitative
analysis.
Research
results culminate into a report
comprising the purpose, scope, analysis and
findings of the study. Any good research shall be
factual leading to philosophical and theoretical
constructs for further testing.

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Monism Vs Dualism
With

distinctions between physical/natural

sciences and social/human sciences (the so
called Sciences Vs Arts), the issues of monism
and dualism and positivism and antipositivism have been cropping up.

August Comte advocated for monism meaning

methodology is one for all sciences. Max

Weber on the contrary vouched for dualism
meaning two sets of methodology for natural
and human sciences.
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Monism Vs Dualism Contd..

Ontological fixity and epistemological precision

are considered more stronger in physical/natural

sciences than in human/social sciences.
The multi-disciplinary approach, as has become

the order of the day due to mutuality found in

social and physical sciences, the pluralist
methodology has emerged setting aside monism
and dualism. Eclecticism is thus the emerging
research method.

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Eclecticism
Research

questions
are
multi-dimensional
requiring multifarious investigations; for which
multiple methods are often required.

Eclecticism

addresses to the judicious use of

multiple methods in investigation, analyses, and
reporting.

It logically believes in the contention that there is

no one best way of researching. Therefore, case

study, survey, experimental, exploratory designs
could be used in combination of one another;
there by resulting into eclectic method.
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Positivism Vs Anti-Positivism
The same method that studies natural sciences can

be adopted for creating a science of society

(Comte) is the essence of positivism. Contrarily,
there could be no fixed laws of the society and actors
in the society are the impacting force on the society
is the major theme of anti positivism.(Webers
verstehen meaning intuitive understanding)

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Positivism Vs Anti-Positivism
The verstehen thesis is challenged by Nagel,

Hamel and Scultz when they argue that the

participants covert mindset and overt behavior in
a social phenomena may not be the real response
of the actors, rather they could be the reflection
of the observers perception.
Meaning to a situation and actors behavior is
attributed by the researchers own idiosyncrasies
in understanding and interpreting the laws of the
situation and the actors behavior patterns.

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Positivism Vs Anti-Positivism
Contd..

Even empirical evidences are not free from subjectivity

as stated in Emic and Etic principles. Emic means the

way culture is seen by the members of the culture
group (may suffer from narcissism). Etic means
observation of the same by outsiders (may suffer from
observers bias).
Yet there shall be statable propositions based on
controlled inferences even though the full truth is never
revealed. The social inquiry, therefore shall have its
own methodology combining experiential, empirical,
objective observation and subjective interpretations.

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Empirical Vs Interpretive
Deriving

from the above analogy, the issue of

empiricism and interpretivism engage the debate.
Empirical approach suggests that the phenomena
observed shall be based on real life exposure and
shall express the reality to the closest possible
precision.
Interpretive approach, on the other hand, accepts
researchers interpretation of the reality in the light
of
existing
ontological
and
epistemological
evidences.
To what extent the empirical data remains value free
is a big question. In fact all observations, data
collections ultimately take shape only when refined
by logical and meaningful interpretations.
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Empirical Vs Interpretive Contd..

Interpretations

then can be construed as a

methodology for putting disjointed empirical
data into high order analysis.
But, the debate is inconclusive as, for certain, no
one can say where empiricism shall end and
where interpretations shall begin as both are in
the subjective domain of a person.

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Objective Vs Subjective
Arising

out of the previous discussion, the

objective and subjective parameters of scientific
research come to the questing mind.
The search for truth, fact, and reality, if is the
main stay of any research, then objectivity,
verifiability, and testability are its primary
features.
But in social science research these features
always do not hold good because of researchers
subjective biases. To what extent one can be
objective again is matter of subjective choice.

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Objective Vs Subjective Contd..

Hawthorne effect i.e. observers bias and notion that,

People under controlled observation tend to stifle

natural behavior are serious weaknesses of social
science research which is reduced to a large extent in
physical/natural sciences.
Subjective interpretations of objects, matters and other
inanimate bodies have culminated into time tested and
conclusive theories for which the scientific nature of the
human civilization is known.
Therefore, it would be a fallacy to infer that subjectivity
and scientific authenticity are poles apart. Any science,
in fact is found and derived in the minds of people, a
capability that distinguishes the homo sapiens from the
rest of the animal kingdom.
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Quantitative Vs Qualitative
Precision is quality and quantification is the

best
method
of
precision.
So,
in
quantification itself lies the pursuit for
quality.
Qualitative analysis is more descriptive and
social phenomena is better captured by this
analysis. George C. Homans observes that
social data need not be nobler simply
because they are mathematical.

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Quantitative Vs Qualitative
That which cannot be measured cannot be managed

is a philosophy that vouches for measuring social

and organizational phenomena. But too much
abstraction and mathematical formulation of causeeffect variables and their associations appear some
time intelligible and preclude the finer nuances of
social and human behavior.
A judicious combination of qualitative description
and quantitative presentation would best suit for
any analysis. These two are the ways of analysis
and they in stead of attempting to substitute one
another shall supplement one another.
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Constructivism as a dilemma
between theory and practice
Constructivism

is a psychological theory of
knowledge, which argues that humans generate
knowledge and meaning from their experiences.
(Jean Piaget)
Learning is an active social process; learner is a
unique person; knowledge shall be discovered as
an integrated whole are all features of
constructivism.
Accommodation and Assimilation are the two
methods of constructivist learning. Von Glasersfeld
emphasizes that learners construct their own
understanding and that they do not simply mirror
and reflect what they see and read.
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Constructivism as a dilemma
between theory and practice
Learners

look for meaning and will try to find

regularity and order in the events of the world even in
the absence of full or complete information.
Social constructivist paradigm views the dilemma
between context and concept. Context as given and
concept as varied as the viewers, provide elasticity to
the process of research and knowledge
Competitive and collaborative constructivism sharpen
the theory which can guide the practice. But, what
remains unresolved is that, whether more mundane
practices provide the much required experiences or
the theoretical constructs as essence of time tested
practices shape the experiencing process
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Ethnography Vs multiculturalism
Even

though ethnic origins of culture specific

knowledge has been the main source of generating
knowledge; knowledge once generated tends to
transcend ethnic & cultural boundaries.
In the wake of globalization, the meltdown of
cultures has posed challenges to ethnographic
orientation in research. Multicultural dimensions
and identity issues are emerging as questions for
research.

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Ethnography Vs
multiculturalism
Research,
as an instrument

of

knowledge
acquisition
and
dissemination,
is
getting
influenced by ethnographic issues of identity in a
forced multicultural scenario.
Commonalities in terms of human consumptions,
aspirations and behaviors are found to be the logic
behind multicultural studies; while the logic is also
challenged by ethnic identities and individualities.
Research has to find answers for such paradoxes is
now realized as never before.

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Ethical Issues
This is a serious issue as the research today is accused

of plagiarism. The researchers are accused of violating

intellectual property rights.
Patenting, protecting the knowledge from being hacked
through cryptography are assuming importance.
These are becoming possible, because the research
designs
are
not
tested
on
ontological
and
epistemological parameters before they are approved.
Research has an ethical responsibility towards the
respondents whose information is used in the report; as
much as towards the recipients of research in terms of
authenticity of information.

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Ethical Issues

Contd..

Research is not for the sake of research. Rather, it

is for the society that needs independent and

original knowledge, where competitors and
collaborators function in a knowledge permeated
world order.
Research output is for the social good, and it is at
this point that the ethical issues emerge as an
important issue. For example Bio- sociology as a
new avatar of knowledge is raising questions
about cloning, genetic reproduction and such
other
bio-technological
experiments
as
a
challenge to the natural order and selection.
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Research Design and Report

Writing
Research design is combined product

of the
ontological, epistemological, and methodological
structures, processes and outcomes, controlled by
logical purposes and objectives.
It embodies the research question; indentifies the
cause and effect variables; reviews the literature
for prevailing knowledge and sets areas of doubt;
and outlines the methodological rigors to which it
is going to subject itself; and above all to test
tentative
generalizations
for
creating
new
questions.
The research report is a structural presentation of
scientifically collected, collated , interpreted and
analyzed data contributing to epistemological
refinement.
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Research Design and Report

Writing
Report writing though could
be a creative
pursuit, the discretion of the researcher in terms
of organizing the data, presentation of citations
etc is limited by globally accepted practices.
No research shall ever try to conclude, because
there is no conclusion to knowledge. Only
Summary of findings need to be highlighted
focusing on the philosophy projected, which can
be further tested.
The best research is one which can arouse
doubts and does not profess faith.

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References:
Jerry W. Willis; Foundations of Qualitative
Research; New Delhi; Sage Publication, 2007
Adrian Holliday; Doing and writing qualitative

research; New Delhi; Sage Publication, 2007

Alan Bryman; Social Research Methods; New

Delhi; Oxford University Press; 2009

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