Lecture-2

Introduction to
Chemistry
Atom, Molecule & Ions
Matter and Study of Change
Organic Chemistry

Atom

Chemistry is the study of matter and the

interactions between different types of matter
and energy. The fundamental building block of all
matter is the atom. An atom consists of three
main parts: protons, neutrons, and electrons.

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The center of an atom is called nucleus that

contain neutrons and protons.
The nucleus is surrounded by moving
electrons.
Protons have a positive electrical charge.
Neutrons
have
no
electrical
charge.
Electrons have a negative electrical charge.
Chemical reactions involve interactions
between the electrons of one atom and the
electrons of another atom.

Atom (contd.)
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Ion

Atoms which have different amounts of electrons

and protons have a positive or negative electrical
charge and are called ions.

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Protons & Electrons in Ions

Example 1: Identify the number of protons and

electrons in the Mg+2 ion.

Solution:
The
atomic
number
of
Mg
(magnesium) is 12, which means that magnesium
has 12 protons. While a neutral atom for
magnesium would have the same number of
electrons as protons, the ion is shown to have a
+2 charge. This means it has 2 fewer electrons
than the neutral atom or 12 - 2 = 10 electrons.
Answer: 12 protons, 10 electrons

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Example 2: Give the symbol of an ion which has 10 e- and 8

p+.

Solution: The notation e- refers to electrons; p+ refers to

protons. Since the number of protons is an element's
atomic number, the element with an atomic number of 8 is
oxygen, which has the symbol O. The problem states that
there are more electrons than protons, so we know the ion
has a negative net charge. Determine the net charge by
looking at the difference in the number of protons and
electrons: 10 - 8 = 2 more electrons than protons, or a -2
charge.

Answer: O-2
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Molecule

When two or more atoms are bonded together,

they make larger building blocks of matter called
molecules.
A molecule is the smallest unit of a compound that
shows the properties of that compound.
It may contain two atoms of the same element,
such as N2, O2 and H2, or they may consist of two
or more different atoms, such as NaCl, HCl, H 2SO4,
C6H12O6, CH4 and H2O.

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Elements, Atomic Number

and Atomic Mass

There are many kinds of atoms called elements.

Elements differ from one another by the number
of protons and electrons they contain.
The number of protons of each atom of an
element is called its atomic number.
The mass of the nucleus i.e. protons and neutrons
of the atom of an element is known its atomic
mass.

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Isotopes and Nuclear Symbols

Atoms of an element that have the same atomic

number but differ in their atomic mass are called
isotopes.
The nuclear symbol indicates the composition
of the nucleus.
mass number
atomic number

1
H
1
hydrogen

2
H
1
deuterium

3
H
1
tritium

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Heavy Water, D2O

It is a form of water that contains deuterium (an

isotope of hydrogen) a larger than normal amount
of the hydrogen that is available in normal water.
It has a density about 11% greater than water, but
otherwise, is physically and chemically similar.
Applications: For spectroscopic analysis e.g. NMR,
FTS etc.

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Problems

Example 3: Write the nuclear symbols for three isotopes of

oxygen in which there are 8, 9, and 10 neutrons, respectively.
Solution: The element symbol for oxygen is O and its atomic
number is 8. The mass numbers for oxygen must be 8 + 8 =
16; 8 + 9 = 17; 8 + 10 = 18. The nuclear symbols are written
this way:
16 O, 17 O, 18 O
8
8
8
Example 4: Write the nuclear symbol for an atom with 32
protons and 38 neutrons.
Solution: The element with 32 protons is germanium, which
has the symbol Ge. The mass number is 32 + 38 = 70, so the
nuclear symbol is: 7032Ge

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Distribution of elements on
Earth and in Living Systems

Earths interior can be divided into- crust, mantle

and core.
Earths crust extends from the surface to a depth
of about 40 km.
Scientists have been able only to study the crust.
Crust

Mantle

(40 km)

(2900 km)

Core
(3480 km)

Figure. A cross-section of the Earth

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Elements on Earth

The majority of elements are naturally occuring.

Of the 83 elements that are found in nature, 12
make up 99.7% of Earths crust by mass.
They are (in decreasing order of natural
abundance) oxygen (O), silicon (Si), aluminum (Al),
iron (Fe), calcium (Ca). magnesium (Mg), sodium
(Na), potassium (K), titanium (Ti), hydrogen (H),
phosphorus (P), and manganese (Mn).
Core consisting mostly of iron at the centre of
Earth. Surrounding the core is a layer called mantle,
which consists of hot fluid containing iron, carbon,
silicon, and sulfur.
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Elements in Human Body

The essential trace elements in the human body

which make up about 0.1 % of body mass are iron
(Fe), copper (Cu), zinc (Zn), iodine (I), and cobalt
(Co).
These elements are necessary for biological
functions such as growth, transport of oxygen for
metabolism, and defense against disease.
Too much or too little of these elements in our
body over an extended period of time can lead to
serious illness, retardation, or even death.

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Abundance of Elements
Natural Abundance of the
Elements
Percent by
Mass
Element
(g/100g of
sample)
Oxygen
45.5
Silicon
27.2
Aluminum
8.3
Iron
6.2
Calcium
4.7
Magnesium
2.8
All others
5.3

Abundance of the Elements in

the Human Body
Percent by
Mass
Element
(g/100g of
sample)
Oxygen
65
Carbon
18
Hydrogen
10
Nitrogen
3
Calcium
1.6
Phosphorus
1.2
All others
1.2

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Quizzes

Q-1: To change Li to Li+, you need to:

(a) add one electron
(b) remove one proton
(c) remove one electron
(d) add one neutron

Q-2: Fe2+ and Fe3+ are different:

(a) ions
(b) isotopes
(c) elements
(d) atoms

Q-3: 146C and 126C are examples of carbon:

(a) ions
(b) neutrons
(c) isotopes
(d) molecules

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Q-4: 146C has how many protons?

(a) 6
(b) 12
(c) 14
(d) 20

Q-5: Li+ and Cu2+ are examples of:

(a) anions
(b) cations
(c) isotopes
(d) molecules

Q-6: What is the symbol for an ion which has 8 protons and 10
electrons?

(a) N3(b) O2(c) O3(d) F

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Q-7: What is the nuclear symbol for the isotope of oxygen which has 9 neutrons?

(a) 168O
(b) 178O
(c) 188O
(d) 189O

Q-8: Li+ has how many electrons? (hint: the atomic number of lithium is 3)

(a) 0
(b) 1
(c) 2
(d) 3

Q-9: How many protons, neutrons, and electrons does 74Be2+ have?

(a) 4,3,2
(b) 4,3,4
(c) 4,3,6
(d) 4,6,3

Q-10: N3- has:

(a) 7 protons and 4 electrons

(b) 7 protons and 10 electrons
(c) 7 protons and 11 electrons
(d) 8 protons and 11 electrons

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Matter

Matter is anything that occupies space and has

mass. All matter, at least in principle, can exist in
three states: solid, liquid and gas.
Solids have definite volume and shape. Liquids
have definite volume but no definite shape.
Gases have neither definite volume nor definite
shape, they will fill up whatever space they put
in.

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The Three States of Matter

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Substances and Mixtures

A substance is matter that has a definite or

constant composition and distinct properties.
Examples are water, silver, ethanol, table salt,
carbon dioxide etc.
Over 13 million substances are known and the list
is growing rapidly.
A mixture is a combination of two or more
substances in which the substances retain their
distinct identities. Some examples are air, soft
drinks, milk, cement etc.

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Elements and Compounds

A substance can be either an element or a compound.

An element is a substance that cannot be separated
into simpler substances by chemical means.
Examples are hydrogen, helium, sodium, iron, silicon
etc. About 113 elements have been positively
identified. Eighty-three of them occur naturally on
earth and scientists have created others.
A compound is a substance composed of atoms of
two or more elements chemically united in fixed
proportions. Examples are water, sodium chloride,
silica etc.

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Solution, Colloid &

Suspension
Solution is a homogeneous mixture

of at least two
substances. Examples are sugar solution, saline water,
carbonated water, etc.
Colloids are regarded as systems in which there are two or
more phases with one distributed in the other. Milk, fog,
and jelly are examples of colloids.
Suspension is a heterogeneous mixture of larger particles.
These particles are visible and will settle out on standing.
Examples of suspensions are: fine sand or sediments in
water or tomato juice.

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Types of Solution
Types
Solute
less than
50%
Liquid
Solid

Gas
Gas

Example
Solvent
more than
50%
Liquid
Alcohol water
Acetic acid- water
Liquid
Salt water
Sugar water
calcium carbonate
(CaCO3) water
Liquid
CO2 water
Oxygen water
Gas
Oxygen- nitrogen

Beer
vinegar
Saline solution
Sugar solution
hard water
Carbonated water
Oxygenated water
Air

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Physical & Chemical Properties

Physical properties are readily observable, like;

color, size, luster, or smell.

Chemical properties are only observable during

a chemical reaction. For example, you might not
know if carbon is combustible unless you tried to
burn it.

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Intensive & Extensive Properties

Intensive Properties: Properties, which do not depend

on the size of the sample involved, are called intensive
properties. Some of the most common intensive
properties are; density, freezing point, color, melting
point, reactivity, luster, malleability, and conductivity.

Extensive Properties: Properties, those do depend on

the size of the sample involved. A large sample of
carbon would take up a bigger area than a small sample
of carbon, so volume is an extensive property. Some of
the most common types of extensive properties are;
length, volume, mass and weight.
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Physical & Chemical Changes

Physical changes are those changes that do not result

in the production of a new substance. Some common
examples of physical changes are; melting, freezing,
condensing, breaking, crushing, cutting, and bending.

Chemical changes, or chemical reactions, are changes

that result in the production of another substance.
Common examples of chemical changes that you may
be somewhat familiar with are; digestion, respiration,
photosynthesis, burning, and decomposition.

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Organic Chemistry

The branch of chemistry that deals with carbon

containing compounds is known as organic chemistry.

Carbon containing compounds are known as organic

compounds.
Few exceptions: CO, CO2, CS2, Na2CO3, NaHCO3 and
KCN etc.
Carbon and hydrogen containing compounds are known
as hydrocarbons.

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Difference between organic and

inorganic compounds
Organic compounds

Inorganic compounds

Low melting points

High melting points

Low boiling points

High boiling points

Low solubility in water, high 3

solubility in non-polar
solvent.

High solubility in water, low

solubility in non-polar
solvent.

Flammable

Nonflammable

Chemical reactions are

usually slow

Chemical reactions are rapid

Exhibit covalent bonding

Exhibit ionic bonding

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Sources of Organic Compounds

Coal: It is about 80% organic compounds.

Crude oil: It is a complex mixture of organic compounds.
Natural gas: It is a mixture of low molecular weight
organic compounds.
Wood and other plant materials:
Laboratory synthesis:

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Importance of Organic Chemistry

As foods: Carbohydrate, fats and oils, proteins, vitamins,

hormones, enzymes are organic compounds.
As medicine: Most of the drugs- antibiotics, analgesic,
hypnotics etc are organic compounds.
As clothes: Wool, silk, cotton, linen and synthetic fibresnylon, rayon, Dacron etc. contain organic compounds.
As fuels: Coal, crude, oil (kerosene, petrol, diesel etc.),
natural gas and wood.
Others: Perfumes, dyes, flavors, soaps, detergents,
plastics etc.

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Common Organic
Molecules
Carbohydrates:
Glucose, Fructose,
Sucrose etc.
Lipids- Fats,
Phospholipids,
Steroids etc.
Proteins- Amino
acids
Nucleic acids- DNA
& RNA

Vitamins-A
(Retinol), B1
(Thiamine
hydrochloride), B2
(Ribiflavin ), C
(Ascorbic Acid ),
etc.

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Common Organic Molecules (contd.)

C12H22O11

H2O

C6H12O6

C6H12O6

Sucrose

Water

Glucose

Fructose
MONOSACCHARIDES

DISACCHARIDE
H H H H H H H H H H

CH2 OH

H C C C C C C C C C C COOH
H H H H H H H H H H

CH OH

CH2 OH

Glycerol

A saturated fatty acid

H C C C C C C C C C C COOH
H

A unsaturated fatty acid

side chain
Amino group
H
H N

H
H C H

Acid group
H

C COOH

Structure of an Amino Acid

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Probable Questions:

What is an atom, molecule and ion?

What is called an isotope. Give suitable example.
What are common elements found in nature and human body.
Draw a cross-section of earth and discuss its different parts.
Define element, compound, substance and mixture with
examples.
What are the three states of matter?
Define solution, colloid and suspension with examples.
Explain physical and chemical properties with examples.
Explain intensive and extensive properties with examples.
Explain physical and chemical changes with examples.
What are called organic compounds? State the sources and
importance of organic compounds. Give examples of common
organic compounds.

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