Utilitarianism

What Utilitarianism is not

Deontological
Where the locus of value is the act or kind of act
Obligation to rules, as duty

Egoism
Teleological ethics narrowed to the agent him or herself

Descriptions of Utilitarianism
The greatest happiness for the greatest number
Action that will bring the most good to the most people
Teleological
Where the locus of value is the outcome or the consequences
of the act

Development of Utilitarianism
Sophocles (in Antigone)
Creon judges it necessary to sacrifice one person rather than expose his
society to the dangers of rebelliousness regardless of said persons
innocence

Frances Hutcheson
In comparing the moral Qualitys of Actions, in order to regulate our
Election among various Actions propos'd, or to find which of them has the
greatest moral Excellency, we are led by our moral Sense of Virtue to judge
thus; that in equal Degrees of Happiness, expected to proceed from the
Action, the Virtue is in proportion to the Number of Persons to whom the
Happiness shall extend; ... so that, that Action is best, which procures the
greatest Happiness for the greatest numbers; and that, worst, which, in like
manner, occasions Misery.

Development of Utilitarianism
David Hume
"The first circumstance which introduces evil, is that contrivance or economy of
the animal creation, by which pains, as well as pleasures, are employed to
excite all creatures to action, and make them vigilant in the great work of selfpreservation. Now pleasure alone, in its various degrees, seems to human
understanding sufficient for this purpose. All animals might be constantly in a
state of enjoyment: but when urged by any of the necessities of nature, such as
thirst, hunger, weariness; instead of pain, they might feel a diminution of
pleasure, by which they might be prompted to seek that object which is
necessary to their subsistence. Men pursue pleasure as eagerly as they avoid
pain; at least they might have been so constituted. It seems, therefore, plainly
possible to carry on the business of life without any pain. Why then is any
animal ever rendered susceptible of such a sensation? If animals can be free
from it an hour, they might enjoy a perpetual exemption from it [...]."

Development of Utilitarianism
Jeremy Bentham
He formulated the principle ofutility, which approves of an
action in so far as an action has an overall tendency to
promote the greatest amount of happiness. Happiness is
identified withpleasureand the absence of pain. To work out
the overall tendency of an action, Bentham sketched afelicific
("happiness-making") calculus or hedonic calculus, which
takes into account the intensity, duration, likelihood, extent,
etc of pleasures and pains.

Hedonic Calculus Variables

*Circumstances
Intensity: How strong is the pleasure?
Duration: How long will the pleasure last?
Certainty or uncertainty: How likely or unlikely is it that the
pleasure will occur?
Propinquity or remoteness: How soon will the pleasure occur?
Fecundity: The probability that the action will be followed by
sensations of the same kind.
Purity: The probability that it will not be followed by
sensations of the opposite kind.
Extent: How many people will be affected?

Development of Utilitarianism
John Stuart Mill
It is quite compatible with the principle of utility to recognise the fact, that some
kinds of pleasure are more desirable and more valuable than others. It would be
absurd that while, in estimating all other things, quality is considered as well as
quantity, the estimation of pleasures should be supposed to depend on quantity
alone.
The only proof capable of being given that an object is visible, is that people actually
see it. The only proof that a sound is audible, is that people hear it... In like manner, I
apprehend, the sole evidence it is possible to produce that anything is desirable, is
that people do actually desire it No reason can be given why the general happiness
is desirable, except that each person, so far as he believes it to be attainable, desires
his own happiness we have not only all the proof which the case admits of, but all
which it is possible to require, that happiness is a good: that each person's happiness
is a good to that person, and the general happiness, therefore, a good to the
aggregate of all persons.

Development of Utilitarianism
John Stuart Mill

An Empiricist
Not all pleasure is equal
Assumes a non-hedonic notion of intrinsic value
Formula: Happiness [is] not a life of rapture; but moments of
such, in an existence made up of few and transitory pains, many
and various pleasures, with a decided predominance of the active
over the passive, and having as the foundation of the whole, not
to expect more from life than it is capable of bestowing.
Intellectual activity, autonomous choice, and other non-hedonic
qualities supplement the notion of pleasure.

Features of Utilitarianism
Consequentialist Principle (Teleological Aspect)
The rightness or wrongness of an act is determined by the
goodness or the badness of the results that flow from it
The end justifies the means

Utility Principle (Hedonic Aspect)

The only thing that is good in itself is some specific type of
state (pleasure, happiness, welfare)
Pleasure is the only good
Pain is the only evil

Classical Types of Utilitarianism

Act Utilitarianism
An act is right if and only if it results in as much good as any
available alternative

Rule Utilitarianism
An act is right if and only if it is required by a rule that is itself
a member of a set of rules whose acceptance would lead to
greater utility for society than any available alternative

Classical Types: Act Utilitarianism

Cannot do the necessary calculations to determine
which act is the correct one in each case
Often one must act spontaneously and quickly
Rules of thumb are still practically important
The right act is still the alternative that results in most
utility
implies that we should always act in order to maximize
happiness; this is too strict a requirement (all actions
must be for the most utility of the most number, even at
the cost of the self)

Classical Types: Rule Utilitarianism

The principle of utility is a guide for choosing rules, not
individual acts
Utility can be improved by breaking the same rules
when judged that by doing so we can produce more
utility
The use of Rules of thumb and other similar base rules

Negative Responsibility
Premises:
We are responsible for the foreseeable consequences of the
choices we make.
Sometimes we choose to act, and sometimes we choose not to.
Either way, we are making a choice that has consequences.
Therefore, we are just as responsible for the foreseeable
consequences that we fail to prevent as for those that we bring
about directly.

Doing the right thing = minimizing the amount of evil

No distinction between active and passive evil

Strengths of Utilitarianism
It is a single principle, an absolute system with a
potential answer for every situation to promote utility
Clear decision procedure in arriving at an answer about what
to do

It seems to get to the substance of morality

It has a material core: to promote human flourishing and
ameliorate suffering
Appeals to the sense that morality is made for humans and
that morality is not so much about rules as about helping
people and alleviating suffering in the world

Problems of Utilitarianism
Incommensurability
The inability to decide which of the variables rank first when
they seem to conflict
Greatest Happiness or Greatest Number

Problems of Utilitarianism
Problem of knowing the Comparative Consequences of Actions
Kinds of consequences are distinguished (C.I. Lewis):
Actual consequences of an act
Consequences that could reasonably have been expected to occur
Intended consequences

Therefor an act is:

Absolutely right if it has the best actual consequences
Objectively right if it is reasonable to expect that it will have the best
consequences
Subjectively right if its agent intends or expects it to have the best consequences

Only the subsequent observer of the consequences can determine the

actual results

Problems of Utilitarianism
Problem of No Rest
One should always do that act that promises to promote the
most utility
There is often a preferable act that one can be doing
Followers of utilitarianism should get little or no rest and have
no right to enjoy life when, by sacrificing, they can make
others happier

Problems of Utilitarianism
Problem of Absurd Implications
It is counterintuitive
If two acts result in 100 hedons, where the first involves telling
the truth while the other involves lying, both should be of
equal value (100 hedons)
Truth is then sacrificed for expediency

Problems of Utilitarianism
Problem of Integrity
Personal integrity is violated due to personal alienation
In an example, if you are a guest at a mass execution, where
due to circumstances, you can save the rest by killing one

Problems of Utilitarianism
Problem of Justice
Utilitarianism permits injustice
Justice is secondary to utility
If you can kill one unrelated person to save five others, under
utilitarianism, you should
If you can maximize utility, you can sentence or frame an
innocent

Problems of Utilitarianism
Problem of Publicity
Moral principles must be known to all so all may freely obey
said principles
Utilitarians usually hesitate to recommend that everyone act
as a utilitarian for it takes a great deal of deliberation to work
out the likely consequences of alternative courses of action

Responses of Utilitarianism to
Objections
General Response: Act-Utility Feature
when rules conflict or clearly will not yield the best
consequences, the rules must be suspended or overridden in
favor of better consequences
There is no distinction between killing and letting die (active
and passive) as they are equal under utilitarianism hence
the rule against killing is suspended if it leads to greater utility
(less killed/more survivors)

Responses of Utilitarianism to
Objections
Problem of No Rest
The rule prescribing rest and entertainment for the agent is a
rule that would have a place in a utility-maximizing set of
rules
It would promote disutility for the average person to become
preoccupied with the needs of those not in their primary circle
an average person can only do so much and there are more
utility that can be gained through alternative means: i.e.
joining together and acting cooperatively

Responses of Utilitarianism to
Objections
Problem of Absurd Implications
The bias against lying is a culture-induced moral bias
Happiness is tied up with a need for reliable information
(truth) on how to achieve said ends
Truthfulness therefore will be a member of rule-utilitys set
But like other rules, it can be suspended for greater utility

Responses of Utilitarianism to
Objections
Problem of Integrity
Some alienation may be necessary for the moral life
The utilitarian can take this into account in devising strategies
of action
Integrity is not an absolute that must be adhered to at all
costs
Utilitarianism recognizes the utility of good character and
conscience

Responses of Utilitarianism to
Objections
Problem of Justice
Justice is not absolute
Mercy, benevolence, and the good of the whole society
sometimes should override justice
Justice should not be overridden by current utility concerns, as
human rights themselves are outcomes of utility consideration
and should not be lightly violated
The utilitarian cannot foreclose the possibility of sacrificing
innocent people for the greater good of humanity
Morality was made for man, not man made for morality

Responses of Utilitarianism to
Objections
Problem of Publicity
The objection only works toward act-utilitarianism
Rule utilitarianism can allow for greater publicity for it is not
the individual act that is important, but the rules that are
likely to bring about the most good
The objection only shows a bias toward publicity
Publicity can be viewed as a rule of thumb to be overridden
when there is good reason to believe that we can obtain more
utility