Republic of Kenya

Ministry of Transport &Infrastructure,

Department of Infrastructure,
Materials Testing & Research Division,

Studies on Geosynthetics
Reinforced Materials
November 2013: Technical Presentation Session I
Prepared and Presented by Sirmoi Wekesa

Kensetsu Kaihatsu Ltd

Civil Engineering Contractors, Consultants, Architects &
Planners, Interior Designers

Session I

Introduction to Geosynthetics:
Type and Applications

Preamble
Different types of geosynthetics
Main functions of geosynthetics
Major applications of
geosynthetics
5. Major benefits of geosynthetics
1.
2.
3.
4.

Presentation
guidelines

Preamble
What is a Geosynthetic
material?

A planar product manufactured

from polymeric material used
within geomaterials to enhance
geotechnical engineering/geostructural properties through
reinforcement and/or
improvement.
Geosynthetics is a generic
term for all synthetic materials
used in geotechnical
engineering applications
including geotextiles, geogrids,
geomembranes, geocells,
geocomposites, geonets etc.

TYPES OF
GEOSYNTHETICS

1.GEOGRIDS

A geosynthetic formed
by a regular network of
tensile elements and
apertures, typically used
for reinforcement
purposes

1.GEOGRIDS
Type 1:
Categorized by the
method/mode of
manufacturing:

Welded Geogrids

Punched and Extruded Geogrids

GEOGRIDS
Type 2:
Categorized by the
orientation of ribs

Uniaxial Geogrids

Quaxial Geogrids

2.
GEOTEXTILES

A geotextile/geofabric is a
permeable textile used with
foundation, soil, rock, earth,
or any other geotechnical
engineering-related materials
as an integral part of a
human-made project,
structure, or system.

2. GEOTEXTILES
Type:
Woven Geotextiles
Non-woven Geotextiles
Uniaxial Geogrids

3. GEONETS

Geonets are made of stacked,

criss-crossing polymer strands that
provide in-plane drainage.
Nearly all geonets are made of
polyethylene.
Two layers of strands are called biplanar.
Three layers are called tri-planar.

3. GEONETS
Type:
Biplanar

Triplanar

Biplanar Geonets

Triplanar Geonets

4.
GEOCOMPOSIT
ES

These are products

manufactured by combining the
superior features of various
types of geosynthetics.
The objective is to produce
materials which are multifunctional and are faster to
install than the individual
components.
Interface friction becomes an
issue when geosynthetics are
placed on slopes and bonded
materials address this potential
problem.

4. GEOCOMPOSITES

Geocomposites

 Geomembranes are
relatively impermeable
sheets of plastic.
5. GEOMEMBRANES

5. GEOMEMBRANES

6.
GEOSYNTHETICS
CLAY LINERS
[GCLs]

Geosynthetic clay liners (GCLs)

include a thin layer of finelyground bentonite clay. When
wetted, the clay swells and
becomes
a
very
effective
hydraulic barrier.
GCLs are manufactured by
sandwiching
the
bentonite
within
or
layering
it
on
geotextiles
and/or
geomembranes, bonding the
layers with needling, stitching
and/or chemical adhesives.

6. GEOSYNTHETICS
CLAY LINERS

TYPES OF
GEOSYNTHETICS

6. GEOCELLULAR
CONFINEMENT
SYSTEMS

Geocellular confinement systems

(GCS) are 3-dimensional
honeycomb-like structures filled
with soil, rock or concrete.
The GCS structure, often called a
Geocell, is made of strips of
polymer sheet or geotextile
connected at staggered points so
that, when the strips are pulled
apart, a large honey-comb mat is
formed.
The GCS provides both a physical
containment of a depth of soil
and a transfer of load through

6. GEOCELLULAR
CONFINEMENT
SYSTEMS

7. GEOMATS

Geomat is a three-dimensional
erosion control mat consisting of
a UV-stabilized labyrinth-like
extruded polymer core mounted
on a warp knitted mesh
The Geomats act in three major
mechanisms:
Surface reinforcement and
confinement of the soil;
Protection against rain drops
Reinforcement of the slope and at
the same time allowing vegetation
[grass] growth

7. GEOMATS
Non-biodegradable
Geomats

Biodegradable
Geomats

8. GEOPIPES

Another significant
product which has been
adopted as a
geosynthetic is plastic
pipe.
There is a wide variety of
civil engineering
applications for these
products, including:
highway and railway edge
drains,
interceptor drains, and
leachate removal systems.

8. GEOPIPES

9. GEOFOAMS

Geofoam is manufactured into

large blocks which are stacked
to form a lightweight, thermally
insulating mass buried within a
soil or pavement structure.
Typical applications of
geofoams include:
within soil embankments built
over soft, weak soils;
under roads, airfield pavements
and railway track systems
subject to excessive freeze-thaw
conditions; and
beneath on-grade storage tanks
containing cold liquids.

9. GEOFOAM

Main Functions Of
Geosynthetics

Main Functions:

1. Reinforcement
2. Filtration
3. Separation
4. Drainage
5. Erosion Control
6. Barrier/Protection

1.
REINFORCEMENT:
REDUCTION OF STRESS
INTENSITY
(CONCENTRATION)
THROUGH WIDER
DISTRIBUTION

The stresses over the subgrade are

higher in unreinforced flexible
pavements than in geosyntheticreinforced pavement due to stress
distribution factor

1Relative Load Magnitudes

at Subgrade Layer Level
for:
(a) Unreinforced Flexible
Pavement; and,
(b) GeosyntheticsReinforced (Improved)
Flexible Pavement.

INTEGRAL MECHANISMS
THAT CONTRIBUTE TO
PERFORMANCE

Geosynthetics provide
reinforcement through three
possible mechanisms.

Lateral restraint of the base

and subgrade through friction
and interlock between the
aggregate, soil and the
geosynthetic .
Increase in the system
bearing capacity by forcing
the potential bearing capacity
failure surface to develop
along alternate, higher shear
strength surfaces.
Membrane support of the
wheel loads.

INTEGRAL MECHANISMS
THAT CONTRIBUTE TO
PERFORMANCE

Reinforcement Mechanisms Induced by Geosynthetics: (a)

Lateral Restraint (b) Increased Bearing Capacity; and, (c)
Membrane Tension Support

Geosynthetics
Characteristics Influencing
Reinforcing Functions

Aperture Stability
Aperture Size
Junction Integrity
Radial stiffness

2. SEPARATION:

Preventing intermixing of soil

types or soil/aggregate to
maintain the integrity of
each material yet still allow
the free passage of
liquids/gases. Commonly
used in between subbase/subgrade and around
drainage materials.
Contamination of the base
course layers leads to a
reduction of strength,
stiffness and drainage
characteristics, promoting
distress and early failure of

SEPARATION
MECHANISMS

3. FILTRATION:

Restraining soil particles

subject to hydraulic forces
whilst allowing the
passage of liquids/gases.
This function is often
partnered with separation.

4. DRAINAGE:

Allowing fluids and gases

to flow both through the
plane of the material.
Commonly used as
components in
geocomposites used for
surface water runoff or for
gas collection under
membranes.

Geosynthetics
Characteristics Influencing
Filter, Separation and
Drainage Functions

Piping Resistance:
Apparent Opening Size AOS (as related to soil
retention),
Permeability: Flow
capacity, and clogging
potential.
Strength and Durability:
Grab, Puncture strengths

 Isolating one material form

another. The most frequent
use of this function is in
5.
landfills where impermeable
BARRIER/PROTECTI
linings prevent contamination
ON:
of surrounding soils
Preventing or limiting
localized damage to an
adjacent material, usually a
geomembrane used to line a
lagoon or a landfill. Thick
geotextiles prevent puncture
or excessive strain in the
membrane.

5. EROSION
CONTROL:

Protecting and reinforcing

slopes and drainage
channels from erosive
agents whilst allowing the
establishment of
vegetation cover.

Major Applications of
Geosynthetics

1. GEOSYNTHETICS
IN ROADS AND
PAVEMENTS:

Subgrade Separation and

Stabilization;
Base Reinforcement;
Overlay Stress Absorption and
Overlay Reinforcement

SUBGRADE SEPARATION

Separation refers to the ability of

a Geosynthetics to provide and
maintain physical separation
between the base course
aggregate and the underlying fine
grained subgrade.
It does prevent mixing of the two
dissimilar materials, where mixing
is caused by mechanical action
generally induced by construction
and operation traffic.
The ingress of fines by as little as
10% by weight results in the
reduction of strength by more
than 80%.

Characteristics of Pavement Structure Subjected to

Black Cotton Soil Intrusion After Repeated Dynamic
Loading and Cyclic Seasonal Effects

ANALYSIS OF IMPACT OF INFERIOR MATERIAL

INTRUSION INTO UPPER PAVEMENT LAYERS

Impact of Black Cotton

Soil Intrusion

Impact of Varying
Geomaterial Intrusion

SUBGRADE
STABILIZATION

Stabilization of weak subgrades entails

the confinement and mechanical
interlocking of aggregates within the
apertures of the geosynthetics to
increase the bearing capacity.
The three main important functions of
reinforcement:
Lateral restraint is the lateral interaction
between the aggregate and the geosynthetic.
The presence of the geosynthetic creates
pressure in the aggregate that improves the
strength and stiffness of the road structure.
Membrane action is the ability of a
geosynthetic material to reduce and spread
stress arising from the weak subgrade.
Additionally, when a geogrid is involved, a
third function can be described:
enhanced load distribution within the
aggregate.

SUBGRADE STABILIZATION

BASE

Base Reinforcement is achieved

through lateral restrain
[confinement].
With the addition of an appropriate
geosynthetic, the SoilGeosynthetic-Aggregate (SGA)
system gains stiffness. The
REINFORCEMENT
stiffened SGA system is better able
to provide the following structural
benefits:
Preventing lateral spreading of the base
Increasing confinement and thus stiffness of
the base
Improving vertical stress distribution on the
subgrade
Reducing shear stress in the subgrade

OVERLAY STRESS
ABSORPTION

A geosynthetic interlayer can be

placed over the distressed
pavement or within the overlay to
create an overlay system. The
geosynthetic interlayer can
contribute to the life of the overlay
via stress absorption, strain relief
and provision of tensile strength.
A stress relieving interlayer retards
the development of reflective cracks
by absorbing the stresses that arise
from the damaged pavement. It also
waterproofs the pavement so that
when cracking does occur, water
ingress cannot worsen the situation.

OVERLAY STRESS
ABSORPTION

OVERLAY
REINFORCEMENT

Reinforcement occurs when an

interlayer is able to contribute
significant tensile strength to the
pavement system. The
reinforcement attempts to prevent
the cracked old pavement from
moving under traffic loads and
thermal stress by holding the cracks
together.
The benefits of geosynthetic
interlayers include:
Reduction of overlay thickness
Delaying the appearance of reflective
cracks
Lengthening the useful life of the
overlay

(MODEL TESTING)
ASPHALT CONCRETE
CRACK PROPAGATION
CHARACTERISTICS

OVERLAY
REINFORCEMENT

2. GEOSYNTHETICS
IN SUBSURFACE
DRAINAGE:

Subgrade Dewatering;
Road Base Drainage, and
Structure Drainage

SUBGRADE
DEWATERING:

A high groundwater table can, and

often does, interfere with the stability
of subgrade soils. For instance, some
clay soils can swell or shrink as their
water content increases or decreases,
respectively.
Geosynthetic materials have become
commonplace in subsurface drainage
applications. Commonly, geotextiles
are being used in lieu of select
grades of sand because they are less
expensive, provide more consistent
properties, and are much easier to
install.

ROAD BASE
DRAINAGE :

The introduction of geotextiles into

drainage applications has enhanced
the economical application of
blanket and trench drains under and
adjacent to the pavement structure,
respectively.
The excellent filtration and
separation characteristics associated
with filtration geotextiles permits the
use of a single layer of open-graded
base or trench aggregate enveloped
in a geotextile.

STRUCTURE
DRAINAGE :

It has become customary to place a

vertical blanket of pervious sand or
gravel behind retaining walls for
protection against hydrostatic
pressures.
One of the best ways to assure
effective aggregate drainage is to
sandwich an aggregate layer within
layers of filtration geotextiles. The
inclusion of a perforated drain pipe
that collects and discharges seepage
will increase the drains efficiency.
Back fill is placed directly against the
drain.

GEOSYNTHETICS IN SUBSURFACE
DRAINAGE

3. GEOSYNTHETICS
IN EROSION AND
SEDIMENT
CONTROL:

Slope Protection;
Channel Protection, and
Coastal Protection

GEOSYNTHETICS IN EROSION AND

SEDIMENT CONTROL:

4. GEOSYNTHETICS IN
REINFORCED SOIL
SYSTEMS:

Embankments over Soft

Foundations;
Reinforced Steepened Slopes;
and
Mechanically Stabilized Earth
Walls

EMBANKMENTS
OVER SOFT
FOUNDATIONS :

The primary problem with these soft soils results

from their low shear strength and excessive
consolidation settlements requiring special
construction practices and leading to high
construction costs.
Several methods of treatment are available to
reduce the problems associated with soft
foundations. These methods include:
Removal and replacement of soft soil.
Displacement of compressible material by endloading.
Staged construction - placing fill at controlled rates
to allow for consolidation and strength gains.
Installation of drains to facilitate consolidation.
Pre-loading the site to reduce settlements of the
structure and provide higher strength.
Deposit improvement using admixtures (e.g. soil,
cement, lime) or injections
Reinforcement of the soil matrix using a structural
element.

EMBANKMENTS
OVER SOFT
FOUNDATIONS :

soil reinforcement has emerged as an

efficient, economical and effective
solution to the problem of constructing
embankments over soft soils.

REINFORCED
STEEPENED
SLOPES [RSS]:

For many years, retaining structures

were almost exclusively made of
reinforced concrete and were designed
as gravity or cantilever walls which are
essentially rigid structures and cannot
accommodate significant differential
settlements unless founded on deep
foundations.
The economic advantages of
constructing a safe, steeper RSS than
would normally be possible are the
resulting material and rights-of-way
savings. For example, in repair of
landslides it is possible to reuse the
slide debris rather than to import higher
quality backfill.

REINFORCED STEEPENED SLOPES [RSS]:

MECHANICALLY STABILIZED WALLS

[MSE];

5. GEOSYNTHETICS IN
REINFORCED SOIL
SYSTEMS:

Structure waterproofing;
Water Supply Preservation; and
Environmental Protection,

STRUCTURE WATERPROOFING

WATER SUPPLY PRESERVATION

ENVIRONMENTAL PROTECTION

Summary of Benefits categorized into

Structural and Value Engineering

Benefits Based On Study

Findings

Enhanced geotechnical engineering properties

including bearing capacity, structural capacity,
shear strength and deformation resistance
[achievement of higher resilient/elastic modulus
(stiffness)].

STRUCTURAL BENEFITS

Increased ranges of permissible resilient/linear

elastic and lateral strains.

Improvement of the subgrade strength and

deformation resistance through stress
mobilization and expanded distribution, as well
as further tension cut-off.

By spreading and distributing the imparted

stresses over a wider area of the foundation,
geosynthetics may be improving the
foundation/subgrade in a mode that is analogous
to stage loading consolidation.

Enhanced structural performance resulting from

increased resistance to deformation.

Prevention of the migration of inferior material

into the upper pavement layers. This results in
the significant enhancement of structural
performance and elongation of the life-span of
the pavement structure.

Structural benefits analyzed and

realized on the basis of theoretical
considerations and experimental
data determined in this Study
include:

VALUE ENGINEERING
BENEFITS

Appropriate application of
geosynthetics can realize the
following benefits.

Construction cost-time savings

through the reduction of required
pavement material quantities, whilst
maintaining enhanced structural
performance.
Elongated pavement structural life
span particularly as a result of
incorporating the
filtration/separation geotextile.
Reduction in maintenance
requirements as a result of enhanced
structural performance.
Environmental conservation mainly
due to reduction in material
quantities and erosion control.