Materials Applications

Chapter 13

The Big Picture

Ferrous Materials Steels

Steels are iron-carbon alloys
that may contain other alloying
elements.
There are 1000s of alloys with
different compositions and/or
heat treatments.
Low Alloy (<10 wt%)

Low Carbon (<0.25 wt%)

Medium Carbon (0.25 to 0.60 wt%)
High Carbon (0.60 to 1.4 wt%)

High Alloy

Stainless Steel (> 11 wt% Cr)

Tool Steel

MatWeb

Low Carbon Steel

Plain carbon steels have very little additives

(alloying elements) and small amounts of
manganese.
Most prevalent type of steel is low carbon steel
(greatest quantity produced; least expensive).
Low carbon not responsive to heat treatment; have
to cold work.
Weldable and machinable.
High Strength, Low Alloy (HSLA) steel contains
alloying elements (copper, vanadium, nickel and
molybdenum) up to 10 wt %; they have higher
strengths (than plain LC steels) and may be heat
treated.

Hot Rolling

roll
Ao

Ad

roll

Hot rolling is a hot metalworking process where

large pieces of metal (slabs or billets), are heated
above their recrystallization temperature ( 1/3 Tm< Hot
roll <1/2 Tm) and then deformed between rollers to form
thinner cross sections.
Hot rolling produces thinner cross sections than cold
rolling processes with the same number of stages.
Hot rolling, due to recrystallization, will reduce the
average grain size of a metal while maintaining an
equiaxed microstructure where as cold rolling will
produce a hardened microstructure.

Effect of Carbon content on Steel Hardness

Carbon
10xx
11xx
12xx
Manganese
13xx
15xx
Nickel
23xx
25xx
Nickel Chromium
31xx
32xx
33xx
34xx
Chromium Molybdenum
41xx
Nickel Chromium
Molybdenum
43xx
47xx
86xx
Nickel Molybdenum
46xx
48xx

wt %
Plain Carbon steels
Resulfurized for
machinablity
Resulfurized and
rephosphorized

Mn 1.75
Mn 1.00 - 1.65

Ni 3.5
Ni 5.0

Ni 1.25 Cr 0.65-0.80
Ni 1.75 Cr 1.07
Ni 3.50 Cr 1.50-1.57
Ni 3.00 Cr 0.77

Cr 0.50-0.95 Mo 0.12-0.30

Ni 1.82 Cr 0.50-0.80 Mo
0.25
Ni 1.05 Cr 0.45 Mo 0.20
0.35
Ni 0.55 Cr 0.50 Mo 0.20

Ni 0.85-1.82 Mo 0.20
Ni 3.50 Mo 0.25

11

Effects of Alloying Elements on Steel

Manganese contributes to strength and hardness; dependent upon the carbon

content. Increasing the manganese content decreases ductility and weldability.
Manganese has a significant effect on the hardenability of steel.
Phosphorus increases strength and hardness and decreases ductility and notch
impact toughness of steel. The adverse effects on ductility and toughness are
greater in quenched and tempered higher-carbon steels.
Sulfur decreases ductility and notch impact toughness especially in the transverse
direction. Weldability decreases with increasing sulfur content. Sulfur is found
primarily in the form of sulfide inclusions.
Silicon is one of the principal deoxidizers used in steelmaking. Silicon is less
effective than manganese in increasing as-rolled strength and hardness. In lowcarbon steels, silicon is generally detrimental to surface quality.
Copper in significant amounts is detrimental to hot-working steels. Copper can be
detrimental to surface quality. Copper is beneficial to atmospheric corrosion
resistance when present in amounts exceeding 0.20%.
Nickel is a ferrite strengthener. Nickel does not form carbides in steel. It remains
in solution in ferrite, strengthening and toughening the ferrite phase. Nickel
increases the hardenability and impact strength of steels.
Molybdenum increases the hardenability of steel. It enhances the creep strength
of low-alloy steels at elevated temperatures.
12

Medium Carbon Steel

These alloys may be (heat treated)

austenitized, quenched and then tempered to
improve mechanical properties (tempered
martensite).
Cr, Ni, Mo improve the heat treating capacity
of plain medium carbon steels.

High Carbon Steel

These steels alloyed with Cr, V, W, Mo are

used in blade applications and tools.

14

Classification of Metal Alloys

Metal Alloys

Ferrous
Steels
Steels
<1.4wt%C
<1.4
wt% C

Nonferrous
Cast Irons
Cast
Irons
3-4.5 wt%C
3-4.5
wt% C

microstructure: ferrite,
graphite/cementite

T(C)
1600

1400
1200

austenite

+L

4.30

1000

800
ferrite

600
400

0
(Fe)

L+Fe3C

1148C

727C

Eutectoid:

0.76

Eutectic:

+Fe3C

Fe3C
cementite

+Fe3C
3

Co , wt% C

6.7

15

Ferrous Materials Cast Irons

Iron accounts for more than 95 wt% of the alloy material,

while the main alloying elements are carbon (between 2.14.5 wt%) and silicon (normally 1-3 wt%).
From the iron-iron carbide phase diagram, cast iron has a
eutectic point at 1153 C and 4.2 wt% carbon.
Since cast iron has roughly this composition, its melting
temperature of 1150 to 1200 C is about 300 C lower than
the melting point of pure iron.
The most common cast iron types are: grey, white,
nodular, malleable and compacted graphite.

Cast Iron

Castironcoatedwith
durableporcelain
enameldistributesheat
slowlyandevenly.

Wide range of applications (including pipes,

machine and car parts, such as cylinder heads,
blocks and gearbox cases) due to:
low melting point,
good fluidity,
relatively easy to cast,
excellent machinability,
resistance to deformation,
and wear resistance
Cast iron tends to be brittle, except for malleable
cast irons, so shaping these by deformation is very
difficult.
It is resistant to destruction and weakening by
oxidization (rust).

17

Grey Cast Iron

Grey cast iron is named after its grey fractured
surface that occurs when the graphitic flakes
deflect a passing crack and initiate many new
cracks as the material breaks.

grey

graphite flakes surrounded by -ferrite or

pearlite matrix

weak & brittle in tension (the graphite flake

tips are sharp; act as stress raisers)

grey

stronger in compression

excellent vibrational dampening

wear resistant

Carbon content: 3.0 4.0 wt%

Silicon content: 1.0 3.0 wt %

Modifying silicon content and cooling rate

affects microstructure.

Casting shrinkage is low

18

Microstructure of Grey Cast Iron ( 200X, Nital etch)

Nodular (Ductile) Cast Iron

Adding Mg and/or Cerium to grey iron
before casting produces a distinctly different
microstructure and mechanical properties.
graphite forms nodules not flakes

Normally a pearlite matrix

Photo (nodular) shows ferrite matrix that
was heat treated for several hours at 700C.

Castings are stronger and much more

ductile than grey iron.

grey

nodular

nodular

20

White cast iron is named after its white

surface when fractured due to its
carbide impurities that allow cracks to
pass straight through; the crystalline
fractures are shiny compared to the
dull gray fractures of graphite irons.

< 1 wt% Si, rapid cooling rates

pearlite + most of the carbon forms

cementite, not graphite.

very hard and brittle;

thickness may result in nonuniform

microstructure from variable cooling;
white iron develops from faster
cooling; slower cooling rate yields
grey iron.

limited applications; used as

intermediate to produce malleable
cast iron.

White Cast Iron

21

Malleable Cast Iron

Malleable cast iron formed by heat

treating white iron at 800-900C for
a prolonged period causes
decomposition of cementite into
graphite.
graphite forms clusters or rosettes
that are surrounded by a ferrite or
pearlite matrix.
reasonably strong and ductile
(malleable)
Carbon content: 2.3 2.7 wt%
Silicon content: 1.0 1.75 wt %

nodular

whiteiron

malleable
malleable

22

Fe-C True Equilibrium Diagram

Graphite
formation
promoted by
Si > 1 wt%
slow cooling

Cementite decomposes to ferrite + graphite

Fe3C 3 Fe () + C (graphite)

23

Variety of Cast Iron Microstructures

Gf , graphite flake
Gr , graphite
rosettes
Gn, graphite
nodules
P, pearlite = +
cementite
, ferrite

24

Compact Graphite Iron (CGI)

CGI graphite occurs as blunt flakes or

with a worm-like shape (vermicular).
Microstructure and properties are a cross
between gray and ductile iron.
Production requires other alloying
elements to minimize the sharp edges
and formation of spheroidal graphite.
CGI retains much of the castability of
gray iron, but has a higher tensile
strength and some ductility.
Its matrix structure can be adjusted by
alloying or heat treatment.
relatively high thermal conductivity
good resistance to thermal shock
lower oxidation at elevated temperatures
Carbon content: 3.1 4.0 wt%
Silicon content: 1.7 3.00 wt %

CGI

CGI
25

27

Stainless steel

Stainless steels - A group of ferrous alloys

that contain at least 11% Cr, providing
extraordinary corrosion resistance.
Categories of stainless steels:

Ferritic Stainless Steels

Martensitic Stainless Steels

Austenitic Stainless Steels

Precipitation-Hardening (PH) Stainless

Steels

Duplex Stainless Steels

Ferrous Alloys
Strengths
1)
2)
3)

Inexpensive
Abundant supply of iron ore
Many applications due to wide range of
material properties.

http://www.nickelinstitute.org/index.cfm?ci_id=8&la_id=1

stainlesssteelvideos

Limitations
1)
2)
3)

Relatively high densities

Relatively low electrical conductivities
Generally poor corrosion resistance
31

32

Nonferrous Metals
Cu Alloys

Al Alloys

Brass: Zn is a substitutional impurity -low : 2.7 g/cm3

(costume jewelry, coins,
-Cu, Mg, Si, Mn, Zn additions
corrosion resistant)
-solid solution or precipitation
Bronze : Sn, Al, Si, Ni are
strengthened (structural
substitutionalimpurities
aircraft parts
& packaging)
Cu-Be:
precipitation hardened
for strength
(bushings, landing gear)

Ti Alloys

NonFerrous
Alloys

Mg Alloys

-very low : 1.7g/cm3

-ignites easily
-aircraft, missiles

Refractory metals
-relatively low : 4.5 g/cm3
-high melting Ts
3
(7.9 g/cm for steel) Noble metals
-Nb, Mo, W, Ta
-reactive at high Ts -Ag, Au, Pt
-space application -oxidation/corrosion resistant
33

Copper

It is a ductile metal with very high thermal and electrical conductivity. Pure
copper is soft and malleable making it difficult to machine.
Copper is the standard benchmark for electrical conductivity. It conducts
electrical current better than any other metal except silver.
Copper is routinely refined to 99.98% purity before it is acceptable for
many electrical applications.
Building construction accounts for more than 40% of all copper use. The
average single-family home contains the following amounts of copper:

195 pounds - building wire

151 pounds - plumbing tube, fillings, valves

24 pounds - plumbers' brass goods

47 pounds - built-in appliances

12 pounds - builders hardware

10 pounds - other wire and tube

34

Copper Facts

Copper is the oldest metal, dating back more than 10,000 years. A
copper pendant discovered in what is now northern Iraq dates to
roughly 8700 B.C.
The boilers on Robert Fulton's steamboats were made from copper.
Archeologists have recovered a portion of a water plumbing system
from the Pyramid of Cheops in Egypt. The copper tubing used was
found in serviceable condition after more than 5,000 years.
Copper cookware is the most highly regarded by chefs around the
world. Its noted advantages - high heat transfer (the highest of any
material used in cooking) plus uniform heating (no hot spots).
Brasses and Bronzes are probably the most well-known families of
copper-base alloys. Brasses are mainly copper and zinc. Bronzes are
mainly copper along with alloying elements such as tin, aluminum,
silicon or beryllium.
Other copper alloy families include copper-nickels and nickel silvers.
Copper Development Association (CDA) recognizes more than 400
copper-base alloys in current use.
35

The US penny contains only 2.6% copper. In 1982, the U.S. Mint
converted production of the 95% copper coin to a predominantly zinc alloy,
but coated it with copper to preserve its appearance.
The U.S. nickel is actually 75% copper. The dime, quarter, and half dollar
coins contain 91.67% copper and the Susan B. Anthony dollar is 87.5%
copper.
The various Euro coins are Cu-Ni, Cu-Zn-Ni or Cu-Al-Zn-Sn alloys.

Brass

Brass is the most common copper alloy (zinc is the

substitutional impurity).
Brass has higher ductility than copper or zinc. The relatively
low melting point of brass (900 to 940C, depending on
composition) and its flow characteristics make it a relatively
easy material to cast.
By varying the proportions of copper and zinc, the
properties of the brass can be changed, allowing hard and
soft brasses.
Some of the common brasses are yellow, naval and
cartridge.
Brass is frequently used to make musical instruments (good
ductility and acoustic properties).
37

Copper alloys containing tin,

(lead), aluminum, silicon and
nickel are classified as
bronzes.
Stronger than brasses with
good corrosion and tensile
properties; can be cast, hot
worked and cold worked.
Wide range of applications:
ancient Chinese cast artifacts,
skateboard ball bearings,
surgical and dental
instruments.

Bronze

38

Beryllium copper

Beryllium copper is ductile, weldable and machinable. It is resistant to

non-oxidizing acids (hydrochloric acid or carbonic acid), to abrasive
wear and to galling (surface damage caused by sliding solids).
It can be heat-treated to improve its strength, durability and electrical
conductivity.
Beryllium copper is used in springs, load cells and other parts that must
retain their shapes while subjected to repeated stress and strain.
Due to its electrical conductivity, it is used in low-current contacts for
batteries and electrical connectors.
High strength beryllium copper alloys contain up to 2.7% of beryllium
(cast), or 1.6-2% of beryllium with about 0.3% cobalt (wrought). The
high mechanical strength is achieved by precipitation hardening or age
hardening. The thermal conductivity of these alloys lies between steels
and aluminum. The cast alloys are frequently used as material for
injection molds.
Other applications include jet aircraft landing gear bearings and
bushings and percussion instruments.
39

Aluminum

Aluminum is a relatively light metal compared to steel, nickel, brass and

copper. Aluminum is easily machinable and can have a wide variety of
surface finishes. It also has good electrical and thermal conductivities and
is highly reflective to heat and light.
Aluminum is a versatile metal and can be cast in many forms. It can be
rolled, stamped, drawn, spun, roll-formed, hammered and forged. The
metal can be extruded into a variety of shapes, and can be milled, and
bored in the machining process. Aluminum can be riveted, welded,
brazed, or resin bonded. For most applications, aluminum needs no
protective coating as it can be finished to look good, however it is often
anodized to improve color and strength.
Another important characteristic is specific strength; where the specific
strength is a material's strength (force per unit area at failure) divided by
its density. It is also known as the strength-to-weight ratio or
strength/weight ratio. Materials with high specific strengths are widely
used in aerospace applications where weight savings are worth the higher
material cost. Titanium, magnesium and carbon fiber-epoxy (composites)
are widely used in these applications for this reason.
41

Aluminum Lithium Alloys

Commercial aluminum-lithium alloys

are targeted as advanced materials for
aerospace technology primarily
because of their low density, high
specific modulus, and excellent fatigue
and cryogenic toughness properties.
The principal disadvantages of peakstrength aluminum-lithium alloys are
reduced ductility and fracture
toughness in the short transverse
direction, anisotropy of in-plane
properties, the need for cold work to
attain peak properties, and accelerated
fatigue crack extension rates when
cracks are microstructurally small.

http://www.keytometals.com/Article58.htm

TheFalcon9boostertankismadeof
aluminumlithiumalloy.Weldingitwithout
forminghydrogenbubblesistricky.

Alloy Designation System

Aluminum alloys are classified as either cast or

wrought.
Composition is designated by a 4 digit number
that specifies the major alloying element.

Alloy
Series
1xxx
2xxx
3xxx
4xxx
5xxx
6xxx
7xxx
8xxx

Principal Alloying Element

Wrought
Minimum 99.000% Aluminum
Copper
Manganese
Silicon
Magnesium
Magnesium and Silicon
Zinc
Other Elements

Alloy
Principal Alloying Element
Series
Cast
99.000% minimum Aluminum
1xx.x
Copper
2xx.x
3xx.x Silicon Plus Copper and/or Magnesium
Silicon
4xx.x
Magnesium
5xx.x
Unused Series
6xx.x
Zinc
7xx.x
Tin
8xx.x
Other Elements
9xx.x

http://www.alcotec.com/us/en/solutions/UnderstandingtheAluminumAlloyDesignationSystem.cfm

43

Temper Designations

F As fabricated. Applies to products in which no thermal treatments or

strain-hardening methods are used to shaped the product.
H Strain-hardened (wrought products only). Applies to products that
have their strength increased by strain-hardening, with or without
additional thermal treatments to produce a reduction in strength.
H1 Strain-hardened only. Applies to products which are strain-hardened
to achieve the strength desired without additional thermal treatment.
O Annealed, recrystallized (wrought products only). Applies to wrought
alloys which are annealed to obtain the softest temper, and to cast alloys
which are annealed to improve ductility and dimensional stability.
T Thermally treated to produce stable tempers other than F, O or H.
Applies to products which are thermally treated, with or without
additional strain-hardening, to produce stable tempers.
T3 Solution heat-treated and then cold worked. Applies to alloys which
are cold worked to improve strength after solution heat treatment, or in
which the effect of cold work in flattening or straightening is significant in
mechanical property limits.
http://www.efunda.com/materials/alloys/aluminum/temper.cfm

44

Composedofthreeinterlockingnonsticklayers
forsuperiordurability,theanodizedaluminum
pansareengineeredtostandyearsofdailyuse
anddishwashercleaning.Safeforuseonboth
gasandelectricstovetops(andovensafeto
500F),theyconductheatexceptionallywell
whileresistingstainsandscratches.Thetriple
rivetedergonomichandlesstaycooltothe
touch.InnovativecookwareismadeinOhioby
CalphalonMadeintheUSA.
http://www.williamssonoma.com/

Titanium

Titanium is very reactive, and because of this it is often used

for alloying and deoxidizing other metals. Titanium is a more
powerful deoxidizer of steel than silicon or manganese.
Titanium is 40% lighter than steel and 60% heavier than
aluminum. This combination of high strength and low weight
makes titanium a very useful structural metal.
Titanium also features excellent corrosion resistance, which
stems from a thin oxide surface film that protects it from
atmospheric and ocean conditions as well as a wide variety
of chemicals.
Pure titanium melts at 1670oC and has a density of 4.51
g/cm3. Good for use in components that operate at elevated
temperatures, especially where large strength to weight
ratios are required.
Titanium can catch fire and cause severe damage in
circumstances where it rubs against other metals at elevated
temperatures. This is what limits its application in the harsh
environment of aeroengines, to regions where the
temperature does not exceed 400oC.
46

http://www.msm.cam.ac.uk/phasetrans/2004/titanium/titanium.html

Titanium-2

Titanium is rather difficult to fabricate because of its

susceptibility to oxygen, nitrogen, and hydrogen
impurities that cause the titanium to become more brittle.
Elevated temperature processing must be used under
special conditions to avoid diffusion of these gasses into
the titanium.
Commercially produced titanium products are made in
the following mill wrought forms; plate, tubing, sheet,
wire, extrusions, and forgings.
Titanium can also be cast, but must be done in a
vacuum furnace because of titanium's reactive nature.
Because of its high strength to weight ratio and excellent
corrosion resistance, titanium is used in a variety of
applications: aircraft, sporting equipment, chemical
processing, desalination, power generation equipment,
valve and pump parts, marine hardware and prosthetic
devices.

47

Nickel

Nickel-containing materials are used in buildings and infrastructure,

chemical production, communications, energy supply (batteries: NiCd,
Ni-metal hydrides), environmental protection, food preparation, water
treatment and travel.
Nickel Catalyst for Fuel Cells: Nickel-cobalt is seen as a low-cost
substitute for platinum catalysts.
Shape Memory Alloys: Stainless steel may soon provide a low-cost
alternative to alloys that snap back to original form but are too
expensive for widespread use.
Two-thirds of all nickel produced goes into stainless steel, to promote
a stable, ductile, austenitic structure as well as contribute to corrosion
resistance.
Key attributes: high melting point of 1453C

forms an adherent oxide film

resists corrosion by alkalis

forms alloys readily, both as solute and solvent

Liquidnaturalgasstoragetank

readily deposited by electroplating

49

http://www.nickelinstitute.org/8/index1.shtml

Nickel-2

StainlesssteelroofingontheThames
Barrier

50

Magnesium

Magnesium is the lightest of the commonly used metals

(density is 1.7 g/cm3). Its versatility and abundance make it one
of the most popular metals, and variations of magnesium alloys
are used in almost every major industry because it is strong,
easily machined, and stable.
Magnesium alloys are also impact and dent resistant, and they
have the capacity for damping and low inertia, which makes
them effective in high-speed applications.
Like the majority of common metals, magnesium is too soft to
be used as a structural metal. Magnesium is most commonly
alloyed with aluminum.
Due to its light weight, superior machinability and ease of
casting, magnesium is used for many purposes such as auto
parts, sporting goods, power tools, aerospace equipment,
fixtures, and material handling equipment. Automotive
applications include gearboxes, valve covers, wheels, clutch
housings, and brake pedal brackets. Wrought alloys are
available in rod, bar, sheet, plate, forgings and extrusions. 51

Ceramics Materials

53

Refractory Materials

A refractory material retains its strength at high temperatures,

environments above 1000 F (800K, 500 C).
Refractory materials are used in linings for furnaces, kilns, incinerators,
crucibles and reactors.
Refractory materials must be chemically and physically stable at high
temperatures. Typically, they need to be resistant to thermal shock, be
chemically inert, and have specific ranges of thermal conductivity and
thermal expansion.
Metals that have extremely high melting temperatures are refractory
metals: niobium, tantalum, molybdenum and tungsten. Melting
temperatures range between 2468 and 3410 C.
Aluminium oxide (alumina), silicon oxide (silica), calcium oxide (lime)
magnesium oxide (magnesia) and fireclays are used to manufacture
other refractory materials.
Zirconia is used when the material must withstand extremely high
temperatures. Silicon carbide and carbon are two other refractory
materials used in some very severe temperature conditions, but cannot
be used in the presence of oxygen, as they will oxidize and burn. 55

http://www.ultramet.com/

Advanced Ceramics: Automobile Engines

Advantages:

Disadvantages:

Ceramic materials are brittle

Operate at high temperatures
high efficiencies
Difficult to remove internal

voids (that weaken

Low frictional losses
structures)

Operate without a cooling system

Ceramic parts are difficult to
Lower weights than current
form and machine
engines
Potential candidate materials: Si3N4 (engine valves, ball bearings),
SiC (MESFETS), & ZrO2 (sensors),

Possible engine parts: engine block & piston coatings

57

Microelectromechanical systems (MEMS)

MEMS are micron-sized structures such as beams,

cantilevers, diaphragms, valves, plates and switches
that can function as tiny sensors and actuators.
They are fabricated by integrated circuit (IC)
manufacturing processes; that is, by bulk and
surface micromachining.
Like ICs, thousands of micromachines can be
fabricated on a single silicon wafer with supporting
circuits integrated on the chip. They can be massproduced in the millions at low prices, which is their
main appeal.
Engineers have developed low-cost, commercial
MEMS devices for:
Corrosion detectors and monitors
Automotive and aerospace instrumentation
Biological and medical devices
Chemical and environmental sensors
Manufacturing and process control devices
Virtual reality systems

Abrasive Ceramics

Abrasives are used to wear, grind or cut away

other softer materials.
Diamonds, natural and synthetic, are used as
abrasives, though relatively expensive.
Industrial diamonds are valued mostly for their
hardness and heat conductivity.
They are reportedly 100 million carats unsuitable
for use as gemstones, destined for industrial use.
More common ceramic abrasives are silicon
carbide, tungsten carbide, aluminum oxide
(corundum) and silica sand.
Abrasives are either bonded (with a glassy
ceramic or an organic resin) to a grinding wheel or
made into a powder and used with a cloth or
paper (like sandpaper).

Siliconcarbide

Diamonds

Al2O3abrasivegrains

Glass

A glass is an inorganic, non metallic material that does not have a

crystalline structure. These materials are said to be amorphous and are
virtually solid liquids cooled at such a rate that crystals do not form.
Typical glasses range from the soda-lime silicate glass for soda bottles to
the extremely high purity silica glass for optical fibers.
Glass is widely used for windows, bottles, glasses for drinking, transfer
piping and receptacles for highly corrosive liquids, optical glasses,
windows for nuclear applications.
The main constituent of glass is silicon dioxide (SiO2). The most
common form of silica used in glassmaking has always been sand.
Sand by itself can be fused to produce glass, but it has to be done at
1700 C. Adding other chemicals to sand can considerably reduce the
temperature of the fusion.
The addition of sodium carbonate (Na2CO3), known as soda ash, in a
quantity to produce a fused mixture of 75% Silica (SiO 2) and 25% of
sodium oxide (Na2O), will reduce the temperature of fusion to about 800
C.
To give glass stability, other chemicals like Calcium Oxide (CaO) and
magnesium oxide (MgO) are added. The raw materials used are
carbonates: limestone (CaCO3) and dolomite (MgCO3). When subjected
to high temperatures they give off CO2, leaving the oxides in the glass.

Key Properties of Glass

Glass-ceramic materials have been designed

to have the following characteristics:

Relatively high mechanical strengths;

Low coefficients of thermal expansion;
Relatively high temperature capabilities;
Good dielectric properties;
Good biological compatibility;
Thermal shock resistance;

61

Polymers

Plastics are materials that have some structural rigidity under

load and are used in general purpose applications: Table
13.12, next 2 slides.
Many natural plastics exist, such as shellac, rubber, asphalt,
and cellulose ; however, it is the ability to synthetically create
(cheaply) a broad range of materials demonstrating useful
properties that has made plastic so prevalent.
Plastics are used in clothing, housing, automobiles, aircraft,
packaging, electronics, signs, recreation items, and medical
implants.
Moldedplasticfoodreplicas

63

Elastomers

An elastomer is a polymer with elasticity. The term,

derived from elastic polymer, is often used
interchangeably with the term rubber. Each of the
monomers that link to form the polymer is usually made of
carbon, hydrogen, oxygen and/or silicon.
Elastomers are amorphous polymers existing above their
glass transition temperature, so that considerable
segmental motion is possible. Their primary uses are for
seals, adhesives and molded flexible parts.
The Glass transition temperature, Tg, is the temperature at
which an amorphous solid, such as glass or a polymer,
becomes brittle on cooling, or soft on heating.
66

Liquid Crystal Polymers (LCP)

The primary use of LCPs are in LCDs (liquid crystal displays) on

watches, flat panel computer monitors, televisions and clocks.
LCDs are common because they are thinner and lighter and draw
much less power than cathode ray tubes (CRTs).
The name "liquid crystal" sounds like a contradiction. A crystal is a
solid material like quartz, usually as hard as rock, and a liquid is
obviously different.
There are some substances that can exist in an odd state that is sort
of like a liquid and sort of like a solid. It turns out that liquid crystals
are closer to a liquid state than a solid. It takes a fair amount of heat
to change a suitable substance from a solid into a liquid crystal, and
it only takes a little more heat to turn that same liquid crystal into a
real liquid.
One feature of liquid crystals is that they're affected by electric
current. A particular sort of nematic liquid crystal, called twisted
nematics (TN), is naturally twisted. Applying an electric current to
these liquid crystals will untwist them to varying degrees, depending
on the current's voltage.
LCDs use these liquid crystals because they react predictably to
electric current in such a way as to control light passage.
http://www.howstuffworks.com/lcd.htm

68

Advanced Polymers
Ultrahigh Molecular Weight Polyethylene (UHMWPE)

Molecular weight ca. 4 x 106 g/mol

Outstanding properties

high impact strength

resistance to wear/abrasion
low coefficient of friction
self-lubricating surface

UHMWPE

Important applications

bullet-proof vests
golf ball covers
hip implants (acetabular cup)

69